Balancing Water Ecosystem Services: Assessing Water Yield and Purification in Shanxi
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Sources
2.3. Research Methodology
2.3.1. InVEST Model
- (1)
- Water yield module
- (2)
- Water purification module
2.3.2. Bivariate Spatial Correlation Model
2.3.3. PLUS Model
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Changes in Water Yield in Shanxi Province from 2000 to 2020
3.1.1. Temporal Variations
3.1.2. Spatial Variations
3.2. Spatiotemporal Variation in Water Purification Services in Shanxi Province from 2000 to 2020
3.3. Spatial Matching Analysis of Water Yield and Purification Services
3.4. Characterization of Water Yield and Purification Services under Different Scenarios for 2030
4. Conclusions and Discussion
4.1. Conclusions
- The differences in the average water yield of the different land-use types in Shanxi Province were as follows: unutilized land > constructed land > grassland > cultivated land > woodland > waters. Temporally, the water yield of Shanxi Province from 2000 to 2020 can be characterized by an N shape. Affected by land-use change and climatic change, the lowest water yield (265.27 mm) occurred in 2015, and the highest (375.80 mm) was in 2020, showing a change of 110.53 mm; from 2000 to 2020, the water yield of Shanxi Province changed by 78.8 mm. Spatially, the water yield mainly exhibited characteristics of low spatial differentiation in the middle and northwest and high spatial differentiation in the southeast.
- The water purification capacities of different land-use types were as follows: arable land > construction land > unutilized land > grassland > woodland > waters. Spatially, the areas with lower water purification capacities were mainly distributed in the south-central part of the Yellow River Basin and the northern and southeastern parts of the Haihe River Basin, whereas those with higher water purification capacities were mainly distributed in the southeastern part of the Yellow River Basin as well as in the Lvliangshan Mountain area. Due to the implementation of environmental protection policies and the improvement of the technical level, the nitrogen load was the highest (0.97 kg/hm2) in 2000 because of its large arable land area and high usage rate of pesticide fertilizers. In contrast, the nitrogen load was the lowest in 2015 (0.94 kg/hm2).
- From 2000 to 2020, a significant and expanding trade-off occurred between the water yield and water purification services in Shanxi Province. The Hutuo River Basin, Zhangwei River Basin, southern part of the Yellow Tributary Basin, and Fenhe River Basin were primarily “high-low” agglomeration areas. The “low-high” agglomeration areas were mainly distributed in the south-central part of the Yellow River Basin and the northern part of the Haihe River Basin.
- By 2030, the urban development scenario yielded the most water (380.53 mm), whereas the ecological protection scenario yielded the least (368.22 mm). With urban socioeconomic development and sewage treatment level improvement, the water purification capacity of Shanxi Province in 2030 is expected to be higher than that in 2020 under all three scenarios; however, the ecological protection scenario had the strongest purification capacity, with a nitrogen load of only 0.85 kg/hm2. In contrast, the urban development scenario had the weakest purification capacity (nitrogen load: 0.94 kg/hm2).
4.2. Discussion
- In the context of agricultural production, areas with low water yield in Shanxi Province, such as the Fenhe River Basin and the Sushui River Basin, should promote the popularization of water-saving technologies such as sprinkler and drip irrigation, improve the efficiency of water resource utilization, and optimize water resource management systems. Areas with wide agricultural distribution and low water purification capacity, such as the central and southern regions of the Yellow River Basin, should also reduce the use of synthetic pesticides and chemical fertilizers and support organic agriculture.
- In the context of ecosystem protection, areas with poor soil and water conservation, such as the cities of Jinzhong, Lvliang, and Yuncheng, should protect ecological forest belts (soil and water conservation forests), strengthen wind and sand control forests to reduce soil erosion and maintain soil moisture and nutrients, and protect water sources (wetlands, lakes, and rivers).
- In the context of urban development, areas with a high level of urbanization, such as the cities of Taiyuan, Datong, and Changzhi, should rationally control the scale of urban construction to reduce the discharge of nitrogenous sewage. Sewage treatments should be strengthened, and the scale of use of reclaimed water should be expanded.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Categorization | Data Type | Data Sources and Processing |
---|---|---|
Meteorological elements | Measured quantity of rain | Data Center for Resource and Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences (http://www.resdc.cn) |
Temperatures | ||
Potential evapotranspiration | National Meteorological Information Center-China Meteorological Data Network (http://www.cma.cn) | |
Natural environment | DEM | Geospatial Data Cloud (http://www.gscloud.cn) |
Slope | Calculated from DEM data in ArcGIS to get | |
Soil features | Soil data | Chinese soil information in the World Soil Database (HWSD) |
Socioeconomic | GDP | Data Center for Resource and Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences (http://www.resdc.cn) |
Demographic | ||
Land use | Land-use type | |
Road information | Distance to the first level of road | National Geographic Information Resources Catalog Service System (http://www.servicetianditu.gov.cn) |
Distance to secondary roads | ||
Distance to tertiary roads | ||
Distance to highway | ||
Distance to railroad | ||
Distance to Government |
Land-Use Type | Actual Evapotranspiration Assignment | Depth of Root System (mm) | Plant Evapotranspiration Coefficient | Nitrogen Load Factor | Nitrogen Interception Efficiency |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arable land | 1 | 350 | 0.75 | 18.23 | 0.4 |
Woodland | 1 | 2500 | 0.93 | 3.45 | 0.75 |
Grassland | 1 | 750 | 0.63 | 8.02 | 0.5 |
Waters | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0.01 | 0.05 |
Construction land | 0 | 1 | 0.25 | 11.03 | 0.05 |
Unused land | 1 | 20 | 0.4 | 9.83 | 0.05 |
Scenario Setting | Land-Use Type | Arable Land | Woodland | Grassland | Waters | Construction Land | Unused Land |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural Development cenario | Arable land | + | − | + | + | − | + |
Woodland | − | + | + | − | − | + | |
Grassland | + | + | + | + | − | + | |
Waters | − | − | + | + | − | + | |
Construction Land | + | − | + | − | + | + | |
Unused land | + | + | + | + | − | + | |
Urban Development Scenario | Arable land | + | + | + | − | − | + |
Woodland | − | + | − | + | + | + | |
Grassland | − | − | + | + | + | + | |
Waters | − | − | − | + | − | + | |
Construction Land | + | + | + | + | + | + | |
Unused land | + | + | − | − | − | + | |
Ecological Protection Scenario | Arable land | + | − | − | − | − | + |
Woodland | + | + | + | − | − | + | |
Grassland | + | − | + | − | − | + | |
Waters | + | − | + | + | − | + | |
Construction Land | + | − | − | − | + | + | |
Unused land | + | − | − | − | − | + |
Watershed | Year | 2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 | 2020 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yellow River Basin | Fen River Basin | 278.9 | 291.27 | 268.68 | 245.49 | 385.57 |
Yellow Tributary Basin | 281.75 | 300.44 | 315.34 | 298.05 | 362.45 | |
Sushui River Basin | 281.44 | 319.17 | 321.27 | 327.17 | 335.06 | |
Qin River Basin | 370.53 | 406.94 | 304.93 | 289.52 | 403.08 | |
Sea River Basin | Yongding River Basin | 213 | 233.73 | 283.2 | 250.43 | 267.09 |
Hutuo River Basin | 333.32 | 287.5 | 310.45 | 284.99 | 427.41 | |
Zhangwei River Basin | 441.03 | 404 | 314.29 | 276.73 | 435.6 | |
Daqing River Basin | 300.44 | 326.42 | 341.76 | 320.76 | 401.76 |
Norm | 2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 | 2020 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Moran’s I | −0.201 | −0.204 | −0.273 | −0.216 | −0.335 |
p-value | 0.002 | 0.003 | 0.005 | 0.004 | 0.003 |
Ecosystems/Year | 2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 | 2020 | Natural Development | Urban Development | Ecological Protection |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Water yield (mm) | 297.01 | 299.39 | 294.06 | 265.27 | 375.81 | 372.19 | 380.53 | 368.22 |
Nitrogen loading (kg/hm2) | 0.97 | 0.96 | 0.95 | 0.94 | 0.95 | 0.91 | 0.94 | 0.85 |
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Li, M.; Li, S.; Liu, H.; Zhang, J. Balancing Water Ecosystem Services: Assessing Water Yield and Purification in Shanxi. Water 2023, 15, 3261. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15183261
Li M, Li S, Liu H, Zhang J. Balancing Water Ecosystem Services: Assessing Water Yield and Purification in Shanxi. Water. 2023; 15(18):3261. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15183261
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Man, Shanshan Li, Huancai Liu, and Junjie Zhang. 2023. "Balancing Water Ecosystem Services: Assessing Water Yield and Purification in Shanxi" Water 15, no. 18: 3261. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15183261
APA StyleLi, M., Li, S., Liu, H., & Zhang, J. (2023). Balancing Water Ecosystem Services: Assessing Water Yield and Purification in Shanxi. Water, 15(18), 3261. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15183261