A Comprehensive Review on Metallic Trace Elements Toxicity in Fishes and Potential Remedial Measures
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Metallic Trace Elements-Induced Toxicity
2.1. Metallic Trace Elements’ Sources in Aquaculture Systems
2.2. Comprehensive Literature Review and Selection Criteria
3. Effect of Metallic Trace Elements on Fish Physiology and Biochemistry
3.1. Effect of Metallic Trace Elements on Fish Collected from Contaminated Sites
3.2. Effect on the Nervous System
3.3. Effect on the Reproductive System
3.4. Effect on Embryonic Development
4. Effect of Hazardous Metal Ions
4.1. Effect on Immune System
4.2. Mercury (Hg)
4.3. Lead (Pb)
4.4. Cadmium (Cd)
4.5. Copper (Cu)
4.6. Zinc (Zn)
5. Treatment of Metallic Trace Elements–Contaminated Aquaculture
5.1. Metal Oxides Nanoparticles
5.2. Magnetite Nanoparticles
6. Future Perspectives
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Fish Specie | Location | Metal Detected | Organ Affected | Effect on Fish | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Channa striata, Heteropnuestes fossilis | Yamuna Barrage (India) | Cr, Ni, Pb | Kidney, gills, liver, muscle | Ruptured veins, hemorrhages in the liver, necrotic urinary tubules. | [47] |
Clarias gariepinus | Abuja (Nigeria) | Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, Cr | Liver, gill, kidney, spleen | Congested central veins in the liver, interstitial hemorrhages in the kidney, congested splenic vein. | [48] |
Cyprinus carpio | Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, University Farm Kolíňany | Cu, As, Pb, Cr, Cd, Hg | Testes | Reduced sperm DNA fragmentation, reduced motility of spermatozoa. | [49] |
Cyprinus carpio and Capoeta | Kor River (Fars Province) | Hg, Cd, As, Pb | Blood cells, liver, kidney | Hyperemia, cellular degeneration, and vacuolation. | [50] |
Oreochromis niloticus | Challawa River (Kano, Nigeria) | Zn, Cd, Fe, Pb | Muscles | Higher bioaccumulation in muscles compared to bioaccumulation factor. | [51] |
Clarias gariepinus | Lake Maryout (Egypt) | Cd, Pb, Hg, As | Gonads | The ovary exhibits lytic characteristics with oocytes at various stages, a decreased quantity of germinal cells, and an augmented interstitial space in the testes. | [52] |
Auchenoglanis occidentalis | Tiga Dam (Nigeria) | Zn, Cd, Pb, Fe | Gills, liver, kidney | Lesions in the gills, liver, and kidney. | [53] |
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Ctenopharyngodon idellus, Carassius auratus, Cyprinus carpio, Silurus asotus | Yangtze River | Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, Zn | Fish size | Positive and negative relationships were observed between fish size and metal concentration. | [54] |
Channa striatus, Heteropneustes fossilis | Kali River (India) | Cr, Cd, Pb, Ni | Liver, kidney, gill, muscle, brain | Decreased level of glutathione (GSH), increased oxidative stress. | [55] |
Etroplus maculates, Cirrhinus reba, and Ompok bimaculatus | Bhadra River (Karnataka) | Cu, Zn, Cd, Ni, Fe, Pb | Liver, kidney, muscle, gills | Degeneration of the hepatocytes in liver, vacuolar degeneration in the tubular epithelium in kidney. | [56] |
Oreochromis niloticus, Geophagus brasiliensis, Hoplias malabaricus, Astyanax altiparanae, Rhamdia quelen | Sao Francisco do Sul River (Brazil) | Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Pb | Muscle, liver, and gonads | Metals accumulated in the gonads, liver, and muscle, with chromium levels in the muscle reaching fifty times the maximum limit set by Brazilian legislation. | [57] |
Oligosarcus spp., Chyphocharax voga | Sinos River (Brazil) | Al, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Pb | Liver | Detritivores species accumulated more metals than carnivorous species. | [58] |
Salminus franciscanus | Paraopeba River (Brazil) | Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn, Cr, Hg, Fe | Liver, spleen, and muscle | Hepatocytes exhibited fat accumulation along with pigmented macrophages in the liver. Fibrosis was observed in the spleen, and contaminated fish showed decreased oocyte diameter and increased follicular atresia. | [59] |
Pseudoplatystoma corruscans | Paraopeba River (Brazil) | Hg, Cd, Zn, Cr, Pb | Liver, muscle, and spleen | The liver and spleen showed higher concentrations of metals compared to the muscle. Additionally, liver fibrosis was observed. | [60] |
Bryconamericus iheringii | Ilha River (Brazil) | Al, Cd, Mn, Ni, Fe, Pb, Cr, Zn | Blood—micronucleus analysis, gills, and muscle | In rural areas, a higher frequency of micronuclei, nuclear abnormalities, and mucous cells was detected. Conversely, urban areas exhibited a lower condition factor, higher frequencies of lamellar alterations, and higher concentrations of chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni) in muscle. | [61] |
Prochilodus magdalenae, Pimelodus blochii | Magdalena River (Colombia) | Cd, Pb, Ni | Gills, liver, and muscle | Pimelodus Blochii showed a higher accumulation of metals, particularly an increased concentration of cadmium (Cd) in the liver. | [62] |
Aequidens metae, Astyanax bimaculatus | Ocoa River (Colombia) | Hg, Cd | Blood and liver | There was a decrease in the number of erythrocytes, lymphocytes, and neutrophils, as well as a decrease in hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit percentage. | [63] |
Fish Species | Metal Concentration (mg L−1) | Metal Composition | Stage of Exposure | Exposure Duration | Effect Observed on Fish | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Effect of Cadmium (Cd) | ||||||
Danio rerio | 0.970 | Cd † | Juvenile | 12 h | Elevated immunotoxicology. | [72] |
Danio rerio | 0.040 | CdCl2 | 0–168 hpf | 7 days | Increased rotational movement, Hyperactivity, and decreased size of otolith. | [73] |
Pimephales promelas | 0.003 | Cd(NO3)2 | Adult | 4 days | Elevated auditory threshold. | [74] |
Pimephales promelas | 0.060 | CdCl2 | Adult | 21 days | Decreased vitellogenin gene expression and increased estrogen receptor beta. | [75] |
Danio rerio | 0.112 | CdCl2 | 0–96 hpf | 4 days | Immunotoxicity, behavioural alteration, and oxidative stress. | [76] |
Effect of Mercury (Hg) | ||||||
Diplodus sargus | 0.002 | HgCl2 | Juvenile | 7 days | Increased anxiety, decreased number of optic tectum cells, and altered swim behaviour. | [77] |
Pimephales promelas | 0.720 | MeHg | Adult | 30 days | Decreased levels of dopamine and hyperactivity. | [78] |
Danio rerio | 10 | MeHg | Adult | 56 days | Mitochondrial dysfunction, and oxidative phosphorylation. | [79] |
Danio rerio | 0.720 | MeHg | Adult and embryo | 30 days | Decreased level of dopamine and hyperactivity. | [80] |
Danio rerio | 0.027 | HgCl2 | 5–72 hpf | ~3 days | Hyperactivity causing mortality. | [81] |
Effect of Lead (Pb) | ||||||
Danio rerio | 0.010 | Pb(CH3COO)2 | 0–72 hpf | 3 days | 10 Gene expression changes in 89 genes associated with nervous system development. | [82] |
Danio rerio | 0.020 | Pb(CH3COO)2 | 0–144 hpf | 6 days | Decreased axon length and decreased locomotion (speed). | [83] |
Danio rerio | 0.100 | Pb(CH3COO)2 | 2–120 hpf | ~5 days | Altered color preference (adults). | [84] |
Danio rerio | 0.207 | Pb(CH3COO)2 | 2–24 hpf | ~2 days | Decreased learning (adults). | [85] |
Danio rerio | 1.730 | Pb(CH3COO)2 | 0–24 hpf | 24 h | Decreased Nrxn2a gene expression. | [86] |
Effect of Copper (Cu) | ||||||
Cyprinus carpio | 0.60 | Cu | Juvenile | 96 h | Increases in brain ROS production, lipid peroxidation, and protein oxidation. | [87] |
Capoeta umbla | 3.0 | CuSO4∙5H2O | 112 ± 5 g | 96 h | Induce astroglial response accompanied by modulations of NF-kB and PARP-1 expression. | [88] |
Danio rerio | 0.100 | CuSO4∙5H2O | Adult | 10 days | Negatively affect the associative learning capabilities. | [89] |
Oreochromis niloticus | 120 | CuSO4∙5H2O | Adult | 96 h | Loss of balance and exhaustion. | [90] |
Effect of Arsenic (As) | ||||||
Danio rerio | 15 | Na2HAsO4 | Adult | 96 h | Alteration in behaviour and ectonucleotidase activities. | [91] |
Danio rerio | 0.050 | As2O3 | Juvenile | 96 h | Antagonistic effects on brain. | [92] |
Danio rerio | 0.500 | As+ | Larvae, juvenile and adult | 96 h | Alteration in motor function (embryo-adult), effects on associative learning. | [93] |
Clarias batrachus | 20 | As2O3 | Adult | 96 h | Increased body discoloration, excessive mucous secretion, loosening of the skin, and complete loss of skin (head region and fins). | [94] |
Effect of Zinc (Zn) | ||||||
Anguilla anguilla | 0.12 | Zn | Juvenile | 28 days | Cholinergic neurotoxicity did not occurr, only liver GST increased significantly. | [95] |
Leporinus obtusidens | 4.57 | ZnSO4·5H2O | Adult | 45 days | Significantly increased AChE activity. | [96] |
Danio rerio | 1750 | ZnCl2 | Adult | 25 days | Significant decrease in acetylcholinesterase activity and abnormal neural signaling. | [97] |
Fish Species | Metal Concentration (mg L−1) | Metal Composition | Stage of Exposure | Exposure Duration | Effect Observed on Fish | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Effect of Cadmium (Cd) | ||||||
Heteropneustes fossilis | 0.050 | CdCl2 | Adult | 24 h | Decreased ovulation. | [110] |
Pimephales promelas | 0.005 | CdCl2 | 12 months | 21 days | Reduced egg production. | [75] |
Oryzias melastigma | 0.010 | CdCl2 | 5 months | 30 days | Decreased gonadal development. | [111] |
Prochilodus magdalenae | 24.90 | CdCl2 | 2 years | 7 days | Reduced fertility rate. | [112] |
Effect of Mercury (Hg) | ||||||
Heteropneustes fossilis | 0.050 | HgCl2 | Adult | 24 h | Increased germinal vesicle breakdown. | [110] |
Cyprinus carpio | 4.990 | HgCl2 | 3 years | 12 h | Decreased motility and fertility of sperms, damaged eggs. | [113] |
Oncorhynchus mykiss | 10.00 | HgCl2 | 3 years | 4 h | Reduced motility of sperm. | [114] |
Danio rerio | 0.015 | HgCl2 | Adult | 5 days | Delayed gonadal development, imbalanced sex hormone. | [115] |
Danio rerio | 0.030 | HgCl2 | Adult | 30 days | Decreased testosterone level. | [116] |
Clarias gariepinus | 0.119 | HgCl2 | Adult | 30 days | Disruptive effect on gamete development. | [117] |
Effect of Lead (Pb) | ||||||
Heteropneustes fossilis | 0.050 | (Pb(NO3)2 | Adult | 96 h | Increased germinal vesicle breakdown. | [110] |
Clarias gariepinus | 140.0 | Pb(C2H3O2)2 | Adult | 96 days | Reduced sperm motility. | [118] |
Oryzias melastigma | 0.050 | PbCl2 | 5 months | 30 days | Decreased gonadal development. | [111] |
Effect of Copper (Cu) | ||||||
Danio rerio | 0.040 | CuSO4 | Adult | 30 days | Damaged structure of gonads, altered steroid hormone level. | [119] |
Pimephales promelas | 0.075 | CuCl2 | 12 months | 21 days | Decreased abundance of post-vitellogenic follicles, increased follicular atresia. | [120] |
Daphnia magna | 1.041 | CuCl2 | Adult | 21 days | Reduced rate of reproduction. | [121] |
Poecilia reticulata | 45 | CuO | Adult Larvae | 96 h | Decreased reproduction success. | [122] |
Poecilia reticulate | 0.026 | CuSO4 5H2O | 2.5–3 months | 56 days | Gonadosomatic index, offspring production decreased. | [123] |
Effect of Arsenic | ||||||
Gobiocypris rarus | 40.00 | NaAsO2 | 3 months | 96 days | Accumulation in testis. | [124] |
Daphnia magna | 0.049 | NaAsO2 | Adult | 48 h | Stable reproduction rate. | [125] |
Gambusia affinis | 0.075 | NaAsO2 | Juvenile | 30 days | Lower gonadal-somatic indices. | [126] |
Effect of Zinc (Zn) | ||||||
Odontesthes bonariensis | 0.021 | ZnSO4 7H2O | Adult | 10 days | Reduced embryo and larval survivability. | [127] |
Danio rerio | 500 | Zn | Adult | 4 days | Majority of eggs were dead, larger hatching time. | [128] |
Clarias magur | 300 | Zn(CH3COO)2 | Mature | 60 days | The highest GSI and fecundity. | [129] |
Oryzias melastigma | 0.010 | ZnSO4·7H2O | Adult | 30 | Irregular oocytes, partly adhesion, empty follicle, and increased follicular atresia, loose follicular lining. | [111] |
Fish Species | Metal Concentration (mg L−1) | Metal Composition | Stage of Exposure | Exposure Duration | Effect Observed on Fish | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Effect of Cadmium (Cd) | ||||||
Leuciscus idus | 0.1000 | CdCl2 | Egg, sperm | 21 dpf | Reduced larval survival, growth, and delayed development. | [102] |
Oryzias latipes | 0.0019 | CdCl2 2H2O | Embryo, larva | 20 dpf | Morphological abnormalities were observed. | [146] |
Cyprinus carpio | 0.06 | CdCl2 | Eggs | 60 dpf | Retardation in the developmental stages of eye pigmentation and spine curvature, lack of tail formation and head. | [147] |
Danio rerio | 34.8 | CdCl2 | 72 hpf | 72 h | Neuromast damage, coagulated egg, increased mortality rate. | [148] |
Danio rerio | 0.8018 | CdCl2 | 6 hpf | 24 h | Increased apoptotic event and induced cell death in brain of embryo. | [149] |
Leuciscus idus | 0.1 | CdCl2 | Embryonic and larval | 21 days | Reduced embryonic survival, increased frequency of malformation, and delayed hatching. | [102] |
Danio rerio | 0.8909 | CdCl2 | Embryonic and larval | 96 hpf | Increased heartbeat rate of larvae and decreased brain size. | [150] |
Leuciscus idus L. | 0.1 | CdCl2 | Embryos and newly hatched larvae | 2 h | Reduced egg swelling, slowed the rate of development (especially body movements), and delayed hatching. | [151] |
Odontesthes bonariensis | 0.00025 | CdCl2 | Advanced-stage embryos and newly hatched larvae | 10 days | Decreased hatching rate and survival of embryo and larvae. | [127] |
Effect of Mercury (Hg) | ||||||
Danio rerio | 0.016 | HgCl2 | Adult | 2 hpf | T3 and T4 content in larvae increased. | [152] |
Danio rerio | 0.016 | HgCl2 | Adult | 168 hpf | Decreased hatching rate, increased mortality, increased malformation rate in larvae. | [116] |
Cyprinus carpio | 0.00001 | HgCl2 | Embryo | 96 h | SOD and GPx reduced up to 85%. | [153] |
Effect of Lead (Pb) | ||||||
Danio rerio | 0.100 | Pb (C2H3O2)2 | Adult | 30 dpf | Distance moved by juvenile zebra fish decreased, and swimming activity alterations in larvae and juvenile fish. | [154] |
Danio rerio | 0.005 | Pb (CH3COO)2 | Adult | 144 hpf | Delayed hatching, spinal and tail deformity, pericardial edema, and yolk swelling was observed. | [155] |
Danio rerio | 99.885 | Pb (C2H3O2)2 | Adult | 72 hpf | Deformed CNS, increased levels of Gamma-aminobutyric acid (primary inhibitory neurotransmitter). | [156] |
Danio rerio | 1.6 | Pb (NO₃)₂ | Embryo | 120 hpf | Spinal malformation. | [157] |
Pterophyllum scalar | 20 | PbCl2 | Embryo | 3 days | Tilt, loss of vision or the lack of effect on growth delay. | [158] |
Effect of Copper (Cu) | ||||||
Leuciscus idus | 0.100 | CuSO4·5H2O | Egg, sperm | 21 dpf | Reduced larval survival, growth, and delayed development. | [102] |
Oryzias latipes | 0.0185 | CuCl2 H2O | Embryo, larva | 20 dpf | Percentage of deformed larvae significantly increased. | [146] |
Poecilia reticulata | 1.50 | CuSO4·5H2O | Embryo | 15 days | Abnormalities in blastodisc to middle-eyed stages of development. | [159] |
Danio rerio | 0.018 | CuSO4 | 72 hpf | 72 h | Neuromast damage, coagulated egg, increased mortality rate. | [148] |
Leuciscus idus | 0.10 | CuSO4·5H2O | Embryo and larval | 21 days | Reduced embryonic survival, increased frequency of malformation. | [102] |
Leuciscus idus L. | 0.10 | CuSO4 | Embryos and newly hatched larvae | 2 h | Reduced egg swelling slowed the rate of development (especially body movements) and delayed hatching. | [151] |
Odontesthes bonariensis | 0.00025 | CuSO4 | Advanced-stage embryos and newly hatched larvae | 10 days | Decreased hatching rate and survival of embryo and larvae. | [127] |
Carassius auratus | 1 | Cu2− | Embryo | 24 h post-hatching | Scoliosis and tail curvatures. | [160] |
Effect of Arsenic (As) | ||||||
Danio rerio | 360.32 | NaAsO2 | Adult | 120 h | Tail bud deformation in embryo. | [161] |
Danio rerio | 0.5 | NaAsO2 | Adult | 120 hpf | No effect on mortality and developmental deformations. | [162] |
Labeo rohita | 198.18 | NaAsO2 | Adult | 120 hpf | Reduced survival rate with abnormal development. | [163] |
Danio rerio | 0.5 | NaAsO2 | Embryo | 14 dpf | Thinning of the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) layer in embryos. | [164] |
Effect of Zinc (Zn) | ||||||
Odontesthes bonariensis | 0.021 | ZnSO4 7H2O | Hatchling | 10 days | Cumulative embryo survival was significantly reduced. | [127] |
Pagrus major | 2.5 | ZnCl2 | 2 years | 10 days | Low hatching rate, high mortality, abnormal pigmentation, hooked tail, spinal deformity, pericardial edema, and visceral hemorrhage. | [165] |
Melanotaenia fluviatilis | 33.3 | Zn | Embryo | 2 h | Spinal deformities. | [166] |
Fish Species | Metal Concentration (mg L−1) | Metal Composition | Stage of Exposure | Exposure Duration | Effect Observed on Fish | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Effect of Cadmium (Cd) | ||||||
Cyprinus carpio | 0.075 | CdCl2 | 6 months | 4 weeks | Increase in the number of blast cells, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), and apoptotic cells of brain. | [184] |
Oncorhynchus kisutch | 0.347 | Cd | Adult | 48 h | Impaired skin extract avoidance behaviours. | [185] |
Channa punctatus | 5.00 | CdCl2 | Adult | 45 days | Loss of sensory cells, impaired olfactory functions. | [186] |
Clarias batrachus | 0.1198 | CdCl2 | Adult | 30 days | Distortion of the gill, liver. | [187] |
Effect of Mercury (Hg) | ||||||
Cyprinus carpio | 0.01 | HgCl2 | Adult | 96 h | Oxidative stress and genotoxicity in gills, blood, and liver. | [188] |
Clarias batrachus | 0.0299 | Hg | Adult | 30 days | Distortion of the gill, liver. | [2] |
Oreochromis niloticus | 0.03 | HgCl2 | Fingerlings | 21 days | Lesions in the epithelial cells, focal proliferation, edema, mucous secretion, vacuolization, or almost empty, congestion, and haemorrhage in gills | [189] |
Danio rerio | 0.0385 | HgCl2 | Adult | 96 h | Induced severe morphological and ultrastructural changes in the gill apparatus. | [190] |
Danio rerio | 13.50 | MeHg | Adult | 25 days | Brain mitochondrial impairments. | [80] |
Oreochromis niloticus | 0.3 | HgCl2 | Fingerlings | 96 h | Edema, mucous secretion, vacuolization, lesions in the epithelial cells, focal proliferation, or almost empty, congestion, and haemorrhage. | [189] |
Effect of Lead (Pb) | ||||||
Cyprinus carpio | 4.295 | Pb(NO3)2 | Fingerling | 28 days | Distortion of the lamella in gills, large polyhedral cells within the network of minute canaliculus in liver. | [191] |
Labeo rohita | 11.40 | Pb(NO3)2 | Fingerlings | 60 days | Upliftment of gill rakers, hyperplasia. | [192] |
Cyprinus carpio | 4.50 | Pb(NO3)2 | Adult | 96 h | Loose epithelial lining of cartilaginous core, necrosis, and deformed secondary gill lamellae | [193] |
Cyprinus carpio | 6.20 | Pb(NO3)2 | Adult | 15 days | Fusion of gill lamellae, vessel dilatation, hyperaemia, and hyperplasia of gill epithelial cells. | [194] |
Effect of Copper (Cu) | ||||||
Oreochromis niloticus | 0.40 | Cu2+ | Adult | 21 days | Inhibition of Na+/K+-ATPase activity in gills. | [195] |
Cyprinus carpio | 55.00 | CuO NP | Adult | 4 days | The observed effects included curvature, edema, hyperplasia, dilated marginal channel, lamellar fusion, dilated and clubbed tips, epithelium shortening, aneurysm, necrosis, increased mucous secretion, and haemorrhage at the secondary lamellae. | [196] |
Oncorhynchus mykiss | 0.1.00 | CuSO4 | Juvenile | 10 days | Hyperplasia, aneurysms, and necrosis in secondary lamellae of the gills. | [197] |
Catla catla | 0.300 | CuSO4 | Fingerling | 3 weeks | Cytolysis, necrosis, pyknosis, and fibrosis in liver. | [198] |
Cyprinus carpio | 0.075 | CuSO4 | 6 months | 4 weeks | There was an increase in the number of blast cells, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), and apoptotic cells. | [184] |
Effect of Arsenic (As) | ||||||
Oreochromis mossambicus | 49.90 | NaAsO2 | Adult | 192 h | Gills were characterized by epithelial hyperplasia and necrosis, liver tissue showed focal lymphocytic and macrophage infiltration. | [199] |
Ctenopharyngodon idella | 89.00 | As2O3 | Adult | 28 days | Decrease in glycogen levels in gill, liver, kidney, and brain. | [200] |
Channa punctatus | 99.80 | NaAsO2 | Adult | 20 h | Fragmentation of liver chromosomal DNA. | [201] |
Effect of Zinc (Zn) | ||||||
Cyprinus carpio | 16 | ZnO | 120 d | 96 h | Hyperplasia of epithelial cells, lamellar fusion, aneurism, lamellar disorganization and curling in gills. | [202] |
Oreochromis niloticus | 6 | ZnCl2 | Adult | 28 days | Hepatocyte degeneration, nuclear pycnosis, cellular swelling, and congestion of blood vessels. | [203] |
Oreochromis mossambicus | 0.02 | ZnO NPs, ZnO | Adult | 96 h | lesions in the gills, disorganization of gill lamella, cartilaginous core disruption, lifting of epithelium, loss of secondary gill lamellae, blood congestion, fusion of secondary gills lamellae, shortening of secondary gills lamellae, atrophy, and curling. | [204] |
Sparus aurata | 1 | ZnO-NPs | Juvenile | 96 h | Hyperplasia of epithelial cells and fusion of secondary lamellae in gills. Lipid vacuolation in various degrees, necrosis of hepatic and pancreatic tissues. Degeneration, atrophy, and necrosis of muscle fibers with edema in muscles. | [205] |
Fish Species | Metal Concentration (mg L−1) | Metal Composition | Stage of Exposure | Exposure Duration | Effect Observed on Fish | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Effect of Cadmium (Cd) | ||||||
Cyprinus carpio | 0.5932 | CdCl2·5H2O | Juvenile | 30 days | Reduced levels of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, GSH-Px). | [211] |
Labeo rohita | 0.65 | CdCl2 | Mature | 28 dpe | Reduced lysozyme activity, alternative complement pathway activity, phagocytic activity, phagocytic activity. | [212] |
Danio rerio | 1.000 | Cd | Adult | 96 h | Increase in the protein levels of (TNF-α), increase in the mRNA levels of NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and nuclear transcription factor κB (NF-κB), increase in ROS, NO, and MDA. | [213] |
Oreochromis niloticus | 1.22 | Cd (NO3)2·4H2O | Adult | 96 h | Significant reduction in antioxidant levels, significant decrease in hematological parameters, increase in neutrophils. | [214] |
Effect of Mercury (Hg) | ||||||
Danio rerio | 0.016 | HgCl2 | Adult, embryos | 168 hpf | Transcription levels of several representative genes involved in innate immunity were upregulated. | [215] |
Pylodictis olivaris | 0.010 | HgCl2 | Juvenile | 42 h | mRNA levels of immune-related genes were upregulated. | [152] |
Pseudosciaena crocea | 0.040 | MeHg | Juvenile | 30 days | Genes related to immunity (TCTP, GST3, Hsp70, Hsp27 mRNA) were all upregulated. | [209] |
Sparus aurata | 0.010 | CH3HgCl | Mature | 30 days | Leukocyte, peroxidase activities significantly increased. | [216] |
Effect of Lead (Pb) | ||||||
Sebastes schlegelii | 240 | Pb (NO3)2 | Juvenile | 28 days | Lysozyme activity significantly increased | [217] |
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix | 0.00384 | Pb (NO3)2 | Adult | 96 h | Immune factors genes were upregulated, increasing the goblet cells’ number, causing the intestinal leukocyte infiltration. | [218] |
Carassius carassius | 1 | Pb.(CH3COO2) 3H2O | Adult | 60 days | Significant decrease in lysozyme and the content of immunoglobulin M. | [219] |
Pelteobagrus fulvidraco | 0.050 | Pb.(CH3COO2) 3H2O | Adult | 60 days | Significant decrease inlysozyme (LYZ), complement 3 (C3), and immunoglobulin M (IgM) levels. | [220] |
Effect of copper (Cu) | ||||||
Oreochromis niloticus | 0.040 | Cu | Adult | 60 days | Increased levels of lysozymes (LYZ), respiratory burst activity (RBA), and myeloperoxidase (MPO). | [221] |
Takifugu fasciatus | 0.010 | Cu NPs | Juvenile | 30 days | Physiological indicators of immune response increased. | [222] |
Pseudobagrus fulvidraco | 0.0011 | CuSO4 | Adult | 42 days | Lysozyme and phagocytosis in the blood were significantly decreased. | [223] |
Effect of Arsenic (As) | ||||||
Labeo rohita | 15 | NaAsO2 | Fingerlings | 12 days | Immune-suppressive effect leading to down regulation of both Th1 and Th2 cytokines, regulation of HSP genes. | [224] |
Sebastes schlegelii | 0.040 | NaAsO2 | Juvenile | 20 days | Increased levels of immunoglobulin M (Ig M) and lysozyme. | [224] |
Sparus aurata | 0.988 | As2O3 | Adult | 30 days | Leucocyte peroxidase, respiratory burst, and phagocytic activities were significantly increased. | [225] |
Danio rerio | 0.08 | As2O3 | Adult | 30 days | Hyperactivation of the immune system. | [226] |
Danio rerio | 0.060 | Na2HAsO4·7H2O | Larvae (7 dpf) | 24 h | Immune suppression due to increased neutrophils, decreased lymphocytes. | [227] |
Effect of Zinc (Zn) | ||||||
Danio rerio | 0.060 | ZnSO4 | Larvae (7 dpf) | 24 h | Significant increase in number of neutrophils. | [227] |
Danio rerio | 0.020 | Zn | 3 months | 42 days | Significant increase in CAT activity, upregulation of stress-related and immune-related genes. | [228] |
Acanthopagrus schlegeli | 0.040 | ZnO | Adult | 28 days | Increased phagocytosis and lysozyme, increased immune responses. | [229] |
Oreochromis mossambicus | 5 | ZnSO4·7(H2O)x | Adult | 14 days | Decreased phagocytic activity, increase in lysozyme and myeloperoxidase activities. | [230] |
Metal Ion | Permissible Limits by WHO (ppm) |
---|---|
Hg | 0.001 |
Cd | 0.005 |
Cu | 1.5 |
As | 0.05 |
Pb | 0.05 |
Cr | 0.05 |
Zn | 5.0 |
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Naz, S.; Chatha, A.M.M.; Téllez-Isaías, G.; Ullah, S.; Ullah, Q.; Khan, M.Z.; Shah, M.K.; Abbas, G.; Kiran, A.; Mushtaq, R.; et al. A Comprehensive Review on Metallic Trace Elements Toxicity in Fishes and Potential Remedial Measures. Water 2023, 15, 3017. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15163017
Naz S, Chatha AMM, Téllez-Isaías G, Ullah S, Ullah Q, Khan MZ, Shah MK, Abbas G, Kiran A, Mushtaq R, et al. A Comprehensive Review on Metallic Trace Elements Toxicity in Fishes and Potential Remedial Measures. Water. 2023; 15(16):3017. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15163017
Chicago/Turabian StyleNaz, Saima, Ahmad Manan Mustafa Chatha, Guillermo Téllez-Isaías, Shakeeb Ullah, Qudrat Ullah, Muhammad Zahoor Khan, Muhammad Kamal Shah, Ghulam Abbas, Azka Kiran, Rubina Mushtaq, and et al. 2023. "A Comprehensive Review on Metallic Trace Elements Toxicity in Fishes and Potential Remedial Measures" Water 15, no. 16: 3017. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15163017