Green Roofs as an Urban NbS Strategy for Rainwater Retention: Influencing Factors—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Urban Nature-Based Solutions
- (1)
- rainwater retention, allowing it to be used locally where it falls;
- (2)
- reduction of surface runoff into the drainage system;
- (3)
- contribution to water evaporation, decreasing the urban heat island (UHI) effect;
- (4)
- improvement of stormwater quality.
2. Methodology and Data Collection
3. Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Rainwater Management
- -
- improve stormwater management through natural infiltration;
- -
- develop technological solutions for rainwater harvesting and use of precipitation water in buildings (a practice recommended by the European Commission);
- -
- reduce rainwater runoff from impervious pavements into drainage systems;
- -
- decrease consumption of potable water (e.g., for car washing, garden watering, toilet flushing), which is a topic of high significance due to the decrease in global water availability [15].
3.1. Porous Pavements/Permeable Pavements
3.2. Bioretention
3.3. Infiltration Systems
NbS Type | Location | Summary of Results | Advantages | Disadvantages/Limitations | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Permeable pavements | China | Flood reduction gradually increases with increasing rainfall amount. | LID designs coupled with conventional flood control techniques reduce urban flooding from heavier and longer storms. | Permeable pavement has the lowest storage capacity among LID designs. | Qin et al., 2013 [4] |
Taiwan | Water retention rates ranged from 9.1% to 61.0% (from three studied sites). | Permeable pavement can minimize stormwater drainage system load. | Retention and infiltration are constrained by a prompt runoff outflow at high rainfall intensity. | Lin et al., 2021 [23] | |
Spain | Permeable pavements retain more rainwater volume (16–66%) than impervious pavement. | After six months of functioning, the NbS is still capable of infiltrating the full water volume at low rainfall intensity. | Drained water releases non-negligible load nutrients (e.g., nitrates). | Crespo et al., 2010 [21] | |
Bioretention | Brazil | Average runoff retention efficiency of 70%. Outflow water with low pollutant concentration reduction. | Runoff may be used for non-potable applications, lowering the catchment’s water demand during the dry season. Flood risks and pollutant contamination reduction. | Pollutant removal with low efficiency (concentrations of Fe, Pb, Ni and Cd above the water guideline limits). | Batalini de Macedo et al., 2019 [27] |
Brazil | Bioretention system retained 9–100% of runoff. Dry vs. wet seasons: runoff retention efficiency averaged 73% vs. 61%. | Bioretention system delays by 10 min and reduce peak flow by 4–100%. | Bioretention device’s storage was constantly below its maximum capacity, demonstrating the system’s performance. | Batalini de Macedo et al., 2019 [10] | |
Infiltration systems | South Korea | As rainfall progressed, runoff and flow peaks decreased in magnitude, frequency and duration. Maximum peak flow reduction achieved of 61% (rainfall amount = 40 mm). | Runoff infiltrates into the soil, providing groundwater recharge. Runoff can be temporarily stored or used by the plants. | Volume decrease and peak flow reduction were limited by rainfall intensity and volume. Land use imperviousness, slope, and runoff interceptors also limit the runoff and peak flows. | Flores et al., 2015 [35] |
3.4. Green Roofs
3.4.1. Green Roof Benefits
3.4.2. Green Roof Retention Capacity
- A. Climate variables: characteristics of the rainfall event—precipitation intensity, antecedent dry weather period (ADWP), season;
- B. GR physical features/design variables: system layers and used materials, substrate layer height, substrate hydraulic features, vegetation and roof coverage percentage, geometry, slope and GR age.
- A.
- Climate Variables
- -
- Event Intensity/Duration
- -
- Antecedent dry weather conditions/season
- B. GR Physical features/Design variables
- -
- GR system design (extensive, semi-intensive or intensive)
- -
- GR substrate composition/vegetation species
- (1)
- GRs demonstrate a high potential to store rainwater for low-intensity precipitation events;
- (2)
- An antecedent dry weather period (ADWP) is a condition that significantly influences a substrate’s ability to retain and delay stormwater drainage;
- (3)
- Higher media height expands GR storage capacity;
- (4)
- Plant density (and its individual metabolism characteristics) affect GRs’ capacity to store precipitation, thereby decreasing water drainage.
3.4.3. Hydrological Parameters Evaluated on GR Stormwater Retention
A. Volumetric Moisture Content (VMC)
B. Evapotranspiration (ET)
C. Drainage Reduction/Peak Attenuation/Peak Delay/Runoff Coefficient
3.4.4. Green Roof Disadvantages
NbS Type | Location | Summary of Results | Advantages | Disadvantages/Limitations | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Green Roofs (GRs) | Lisbon, Portugal | GR decreased and delayed stormwater runoff and peak flow. Out of 184 tests, 69 did not create runoff. | 224,000 m3 of rainwater is estimated to be retained (if 75% of Lisbon’s rooftops were covered with vegetation). | Mediterranean region has extra need for watering systems throughout the summer drought. Colder/rainy season brings heavy rainfall in short periods. | Brandão et al., 2017 [40] |
Italy | Retained rainfall volumes varied with rainfall depth and the previous meteorological period: ≈100% for light precipitation (<10 mm); 48–95% for medium precipitation (≥10 and <25 mm) and 20–88% for heavy precipitation (≥25 mm). Vegetation retained the most stormwater volume, followed by drainage/storage and substrate layers. | Tested GR systems retained 46.2% to 62.9% of precipitation, vs. 15.4% retention by gravel. | Substrates’ capacity to control rainfall depends on their combination with the drainage/storage layer. | Bortolini et al., 2021 [46] | |
Hong Kong | Retention capacities varied depending on the event’s intensity: 72.6–83.9% for light events, 35.9–46.7% for medium events and 15.7–18.9% for heavy events. | Precipitation peaks are significantly reduced and delayed. | Since GR retention is finite, it may not be able to mitigate stormwater during severe precipitation events. | Wong and Jim 2014 [39] | |
USA | GR soil depth enhanced water retention and runoff lag time. | Vegetated roofs have lower runoff conductivity than bare soil. | Soil depth affects GR performance. Additional soil depth increases retention but also solution conductivity, which may indicate suspended particles (degrading water quality). | Buccola and Spolek 2011 [52] | |
China | Factors affecting extensive GR storage capacity: substrate composition > substrate depth > inclination gradient > plant species. | GR can efficiently delay runoff and retain stormwater. | Antecedent moisture contents of the substrate have a negative effect on runoff retention. | Liu et al., 2019 [58] |
4. Research Gaps and Future Directions
5. Conclusions
- Rainfall patterns in the Mediterranean region are changing due to climate change. As such, NbS selection and design criteria need to be adapted to each region, local weather conditions (based on the rainfall and runoff pattern) and the intended target, in order to increase the successful achievement and cost-effectiveness of NbS implementation with higher water resilience.
- Engineered growing substrate and drainage layer materials are the key elements in NbS stormwater management, to enhance hydraulic performance (water infiltration, retention, runoff) of the technological system.
- Further NbS must be implemented in urban Mediterranean regions, combining them with traditional drainage systems to achieve higher efficient NbS that are more adapted to the installed location and intended goal. This process of integrating NbS into existing traditional local stormwater control systems has a long way to go in the investigation of NbS. In addition, combining rainwater retention measures for later use will be of higher significance for academic investigation and real-world implementation of NbS applications.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
NbS | Nature-based solutions |
LID | Low-impact development |
SUDS | Sustainable drainage systems |
GR | Green roofs |
FEMA | Federal Emergency Management Agency |
VMC | Volumetric moisture content |
ET | Evapotranspiration |
GSI | Green stormwater infrastructure |
LAI | Leaf area index |
UHI | Urban heat island |
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Monteiro, C.M.; Mendes, A.M.; Santos, C. Green Roofs as an Urban NbS Strategy for Rainwater Retention: Influencing Factors—A Review. Water 2023, 15, 2787. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152787
Monteiro CM, Mendes AM, Santos C. Green Roofs as an Urban NbS Strategy for Rainwater Retention: Influencing Factors—A Review. Water. 2023; 15(15):2787. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152787
Chicago/Turabian StyleMonteiro, Cristina M., Ana Mafalda Mendes, and Cristina Santos. 2023. "Green Roofs as an Urban NbS Strategy for Rainwater Retention: Influencing Factors—A Review" Water 15, no. 15: 2787. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152787
APA StyleMonteiro, C. M., Mendes, A. M., & Santos, C. (2023). Green Roofs as an Urban NbS Strategy for Rainwater Retention: Influencing Factors—A Review. Water, 15(15), 2787. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152787