Heat Recovery from Wastewater—A Review of Available Resource
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Wastewater Heat Recovery
4. Energy Recovery Options
4.1. Heat Recovery at Component Level
4.2. Heat Recovery at Building Level
4.2.1. Residential Dwellings
4.2.2. Non-Residential Facilities
4.2.3. Remarks
4.3. Heat Recovery at Sewer Pipe Network Level
4.3.1. Sewer Pipe Heat Recovery
4.3.2. Energy Savings and Economical Potentials
- The payback period of WWHR will be higher when replacing a expensive fuel source compared to an inexpensive one.
- WWHR systems are more financially successful when heat demand is available throughout the year. The use of WWHR for longer periods results in more energy savings and decrease the payback period.
- Electricity is used in WWHR systems for heat pump compressor operation and other auxiliary components like pumps and accounts for the heat pump’s operational cost. Low electricity prices will improve the economic feasibility of the system.
- WWHR systems are more financially successful at sites where a new heating/cooling system is being constructed or an existing installation is due to be replaced, decreasing overall investment capital and avoiding retrofitting costs.
- The distance between consumer and heat recovery location also influences the economical use of the WWHR system. The higher the distance between the two results in higher heat losses during transport, leading to greater operational costs.
4.4. Heat Recovery at WWTP Level
4.5. Summary of Analyzed Studies
5. Wastewater Temperature and Flow Characteristics
5.1. Building Level
5.2. Sewer Pipe Scale
5.2.1. Alligation Alternate
5.2.2. TEMPEST
5.2.3. Abdel Aal et al. Model
5.2.4. Other Measurements Based Approaches
6. Impacts of WWHR
6.1. Life Cycle Environmental Assessment
6.2. Impact on Water Treatment Process
6.3. Impact on the Receiving Water Ecology
7. Legal Frameworks
8. Concluding Remarks and Future Directions
- Heat recovery from shower water using a heat exchanger can be an efficient and economically viable option. Vertical heat exchangers have large space requirements, and retrofitting of WWHR system can increase the investment costs.
- At the domestic building level, due to low quantities of wastewater flow and high economic costs, heat pumps are not a viable option for heat recovery at the current prices of alternative heating sources. It is feasible to use a wastewater source heat pump at properties with higher volumes of wastewater discharge, such as public showers, gymnasium, sports centre, commercial kitchen, apartment complexes, and so forth.
- Further research should be carried out with a focus on policy and decision making to improve the economic competitiveness of WWHR systems at the domestic building level.
- At the sewer pipe level, wastewater flow is in abundant quantity. The temperature varies from 10 to 25 C throughout the year with low daily variation, which makes sewer water an ideal low-grade heat source for heat pumps. The main disadvantage, in this case, is the fouling of heat exchangers, which can reduce the efficiency of the heat recovery system, thus requiring regular maintenance.
- Economic savings and payback period for WWHR at sewer pipe level can depend upon many factors, including current electricity prices, more prolonged period usage of WWHR system and the cost of traditional fuel sources.
- Research studies considering the energy, economic and environmental aspects of WWHR collectively are still limited in the literature.
- The surrounding soil of a sewer pipe and in-sewer air are the two major sources of heat loss for sewer wastewater.
- Downstream of WWTPs, the wastewater temperature is relatively stable and can be cooled down to much lower levels. However, there can be higher heat transmission losses in this case due to the often distant location of WWTPs from the consumers.
- Along with the positive impacts such as reduction of primary energy usage and GHG emissions, WWHR from sewer wastewater could negatively impact the nitrification capacity of WWTP, leading to higher ammonium concentration in the effluent water of WWTP. However, the upstream impact of WWHR on the downstream treatment require further investigation to fully quantify what this potential effect might be.
- In order to encourage heat recovery at the component and the building level, various countries can introduce WWHR in their respective building codes and guidelines aimed at improving the energy efficiency of existing and new buildings.
- At present, the conventional technologies are prevalent over such sustainable alternatives due to the low prices of fuel sources. More studies with direct attention to the economic analysis of small and large scale WWHR should be performed to clearly highlight the advantage of WWHR over conventional technologies in the future with the rising cost of traditional fuel sources.
- The non-residential buildings that generate a large amount of wastewater, such as launderette, hotels, and restaurants, food processing industry hold significant potential for WWHR. More research should be dedicated in this direction.
- The impacts of separating wastewater at the source in residential buildings on WWHR can be considered in a future study expanding on previous work from Ni et al. [24]. As discussed in Section 5.1, heat in residential wastewater is predominantly embedded in the greywater component from bathrooms, washing machines, and kitchens. Separating this wastewater at the source in a building could impact the feasibility of WWHR by concentrating the heat available alongside the benefits of simpler treatment of the relatively clean greywater for potential reuse.
- The decentralization of wastewater treatment can be a method to enhance local water recycling, reduce reliance on extensive sewer networks, and reduce the intensity of environmental impacts from large, centralized WWTPs. The interactions of wastewater decentralization and WWHR could be an interesting concept to explore with lower wastewater flows available in small decentralized WWTPs but at potentially higher temperatures due to reduced distances in sewers.
- Another interesting idea would be to explore the integration of WWHR into district heating as a decentralized heating source.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Studies | Scale | Technology | Numerical | Experimental | Energy Analysis | Economic Analysis | Emission Analysis |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[23,42,45,64] | Building level | HP 1, HE 2, GWS 3 | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | ⊠ | ⊠ |
[28,65,66] | Component level | HE | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | ⊠ | □ |
[13] | Component level | HE | ⊠ | ⊠ | ⊠ | ⊠ | □ |
[66] | Component level | HE | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | □ | □ |
[17,67] | Component level | HE | ⊠ | ⊠ | ⊠ | □ | □ |
[68,69] | Building level | HE | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | ⊠ | □ |
[24,25,36,40,70] | Building level | HP, HE, GWS | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | □ | □ |
[35,38,71] | Building level | HP, HE, GWS | □ | ⊠ | ⊠ | ⊠ | □ |
[44,72] | Building level | HE, HP | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | ⊠ | □ |
[37,73] | Building level | HE, HP, GWS | □ | ⊠ | ⊠ | □ | □ |
[74] | Building level | HE | □ | ⊠ | ⊠ | ⊠ | □ |
[75] | Building level | HE | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | □ | □ |
[50] | Building level, Sewer level | HE, HP | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | □ | □ |
[52,53,54] | Sewer level | HW, HP | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | ⊠ | □ |
[49] | Sewer level | HE, HP | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | □ | □ |
[47] | Sewer level | HE, GWS, HP | □ | ⊠ | ⊠ | ⊠ | □ |
[48] | Sewer level | HE, GWS, HP | □ | ⊠ | ⊠ | ⊠ | □ |
[61,76] | WWTP level | HE, HP | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | □ | □ |
[77] | WWTP level | HE, HP | □ | ⊠ | ⊠ | □ | □ |
[62] | WWTP level | HP | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | ⊠ | ⊠ |
[78] | WWTP level (raw water) | HE, HP | □ | ⊠ | ⊠ | □ | □ |
[62] | WWTP level | HP | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | □ | □ |
[63] | WWTP level (raw, cleansed water) | HP, HE | ⊠ | □ | ⊠ | □ | □ |
Technology | Scale | Characteristics |
---|---|---|
Vertical wastewater heat exchanger | Component |
|
Horizontal wastewater heat exchanger | Component |
|
Heat exchanger with wastewater storage tank | Building |
|
Heat pump with heat exchanger | Building |
|
Integrated heat exchanger in sewer pipes with heat pumps | Sewer |
|
External heat exchanger with heat pumps | Sewer |
|
End-Use | End-Use Water Temperature (C) | Water Usage (L/d) |
---|---|---|
Clothes washer | 49.0 | 28.4 + 9.46 |
Dishwasher | 49.0 | 9.46 + 3.15 |
Shower | 40.6 | 53 + 17.67 |
Bath | 40.6 | 13.25 + 4.43 |
Sinks | 40.6 | 47.32 + 15.75 |
Study | Location | Period | Temperature Range (C) |
---|---|---|---|
Cipolla and Maglionico [49] | Bologna, Italy | Oct 2005–Mar 2006 | 10–22 |
Schmid [5] | Zurich, Switzerland | Jan 2005– Dec 2006 | 10–25 |
Schilperoort and Clemens [86] | Ede, Netherlands, | 15–23 Dec 2008 | 12–14 |
Pramminger et al. [54] | Melbourne, Australia | Jan 2012–Jun 2012 | 13.1–21.1 |
Wu et al. [87] | Harbin, China | - | 12–20 |
Abdel-Aal et al. [88] | Antwerp, Belgium | Feb 2012–Jan 2013 | 7–22 |
Pramminger et al. [54] | Melbourne, Australia | Jan 2012–Jun 2012 | 13.1–21.1 |
Parameter | Description | Unit |
---|---|---|
Pipe wall thickness | m | |
Soil-depth to which heat is transferred | m | |
Overall thermal resistivity between wastewater and in-sewer air | m.K/W | |
Overall thermal resistivity between wastewater and surrounding soil | m.K/W | |
Wastewater temperature | K | |
In-sewer air temperature | K | |
Soil temperature | K | |
Wastewater Temperature at node j | K | |
Mass flow rate of the wastewater | g/s | |
Specific heat capacity of wastewater | J/(g.K) | |
Wetted perimeter | m | |
b | Wastewater free surface width | m |
Thermal conductivity of sewer pipe | W/(m.K) | |
Thermal conductivity of surrounding soil | W/(m.K) | |
Heat transfer coefficient between wastewater and in-sewer air | W/(m.K) | |
n | Increment number | |
Increment length or mesh size | m |
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Nagpal, H.; Spriet, J.; Murali, M.K.; McNabola, A. Heat Recovery from Wastewater—A Review of Available Resource. Water 2021, 13, 1274. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13091274
Nagpal H, Spriet J, Murali MK, McNabola A. Heat Recovery from Wastewater—A Review of Available Resource. Water. 2021; 13(9):1274. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13091274
Chicago/Turabian StyleNagpal, Himanshu, Jan Spriet, Madhu Krishna Murali, and Aonghus McNabola. 2021. "Heat Recovery from Wastewater—A Review of Available Resource" Water 13, no. 9: 1274. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13091274