Legacy Phosphorus in Lake Okeechobee (Florida, USA) Sediments: A Review and New Perspective
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. History and Management of Lake Okeechobee with Its Associated Environmental Impacts
2.1. Geology of Lake Okeechobee
2.2. Shell Occurrence in the Mud and Implications of Mud Transport
3. Muddy Bottom Sediments in Lake Okeechobee
3.1. Thickness and Volume of the Mud Unit in Time
3.2. Composition of the Mud
3.2.1. Total and Organic Carbon Content of the Mud
3.2.2. Phosphorus Content of the Mud
3.2.3. Nitrogen Content of the Mud
3.2.4. Iron Content in the Mud
3.2.5. Shell Occurrence in the Mud and Implications of Mud Transport
4. Dynamics of Sediment Transport and Movement
4.1. Chronological Assessment of the Consolidated Mud in Lake Okeechobee
4.2. Impact of Density and Shear-Strength on Mud Transport
4.3. Occurrence of a Thixotropic Organic Mud Unit (Organic Floc Layer) in Lake Okeechobee
4.4. Wave and Storm-Induced Impacts on the Muddy Sediment in Lake Okeechobee
4.5. Recycling of Organic Phosphorus from Bottom Sediments of Lake Okeechobee
5. Lake Sediments as a Nutrient Source for Lake Okeechobee Cyanobacteria Blooms
6. Discussion
6.1. Necessity for Removal of the Mobile Mud from Lake Okeechobee
6.2. Implications for Management of Other Complex Ecosystems and Future Research Required
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Correll, D.L. The role of phosphorus in the eutrophication of receiving waters: A review. J. Environ. Qual. 1998, 27, 261–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shannon, E.E.; Brezonik, P.L. Limnological characteristics of north and central Florida Lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1972, 17, 97–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bachmann, R.G.; Bigham, D.L.; Hoyer, M.V.; Canfield, D.E., Jr. Phosphorus, nitrogen, and the designated uses of Florida lakes. Lake Reserv. Manag. 2012, 28, 46–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gleason, P.J.; Stone, P.A. Prehistoric Trophic Level Status and Possible Cultural Influences on the Enrichment of Lake Okeechobee; Unpublished Report; South Florida Water Management District: West Palm Beach, FL, USA, 1975.
- Riley, L.; Riley, W. Nature’s Strongholds: The World’s Largest Great Wildlife Reserves; Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Brooks, H.K. Lake Okeechobee. In Environments of South Florida: Present and Past II; Gleason, P.J., Ed.; Miami Geological Society: Coral Gables, FL, USA, 1984; pp. 38–68. [Google Scholar]
- Kirby, R.R.; Hobbs, C.H.; Mehta, A.J. Fine Sediment. Regime of Lake Okeechobee; Coastal and Oceanographic Engineering Department; University of Florida: Gainesville, FL, USA, 1989. [Google Scholar]
- McCoy, C.W.; Said, W.P.; Obeysekera, J.; Dreschel, T.; Van Aman, J. Landscapes and Hydrology of the Predrainage Everglades; University Press of Florida: Gainesville, FL, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Lodge, T.E. The Everglades Handbook. Understanding the Ecosystem, 4th ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Light, S.S.; Dineen, J.W. Water control in the Everglades: A historical perspective. In Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration; Davis, S.M., Ogden, J.C., Eds.; St. Lucie Press: Delray Beach, FL, USA, 1994; pp. 47–84. [Google Scholar]
- McCormick, P.V.; Newman, S.; Miao, S.; Gawlik, D.E.; Marley, D.; Reddy, K.R.; Fontaine, T.D. Effects of anthropogenic phosphorus inputs on the Everglades. In The Everglades, Florida Bay, and Coral Reefs of the Florida Keys: An Ecosystem Sourcebook; Porter, J.W., Porter, K.G., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2002; pp. 83–126. [Google Scholar]
- Canfield, D.E.; Hoyer, M.V. The eutrophication of Lake Okeechobee. Lake Reserv. Manag. 1988, 4, 91–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kramer, B.J.; Davis, T.W.; Meyer, K.A.; Rosen, B.H.; Goleski, J.A.; Dick, G.J.; Oh, G.; Gobler, C.K. Nitrogen limitation, toxin synthesis potential, and toxicity of cyanobacterial populations in Lake Okeechobee and the St. Lucie River Estuary, Florida, during the 2016 state of emergency event. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0196278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rodusky, A.J.; Steinman, A.D.; East, T.L.; Sharfstein, B.; Meeker, R.H. Periphyton nutrient limitation and other potential growth-controlling factors in Lake Okeechobee, U.S.A. Hydrobiology 2001, 448, 27–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Havens, K.E. Secondary nitrogen limitation in a subtropical lake impacted by non-point source agricultural pollution. Environ. Pollut. 1995, 89, 241–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Canfield, D.E., Jr.; Bachman, R.W.; Hoyer, M.V. Restoration of Lake Okeechobee: Mission impossible? Lake Reserv. Manag. 2020, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bottcher, A.B.; Tremwel, T.K.; Campbell, K.L. Phosphorus management in flatwood (Spodosols) soils. In Phosphorus Biogeochemistry in Subtropical Ecosystems; Reddy, K.R., O’Conner, G.A., Scheiske, C.L., Eds.; Lewis Publishers: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Federico, A.C. Investigations of the Relationship between Land Use, Rainfall, and Runoff Quality in the Taylor Creek Watershed; South Florida Water Management District Technical Publication 77–3; South Florida Water Management District: West Palm Beach, FL, USA, 1977.
- Moore, P.A.; Reddy, K.R.; Fisher, M.M. Phosphorus flux between sediment and overlying water in Lake Okeechobee, Florida: Spatial and temporal variations. J. Environ. Qual. 1998, 27, 1428–1439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 2019, Lake Okeechobee-Indian Prairie Scrape Project. Available online: https://bugwoodcloud.org/CDN/floridainvasives/Okeechobee/MeetingMinutes/2019-2020_Low_Water_Projects.pdf (accessed on 20 July 2020).
- Walker, W.; Kadlec, R. Dynamic Model. for Stormwater Treatment Areas; U.S. Department of Interior: Palm Harbor, FL, USA, 2005. Available online: http://www.wwwalker.net/dmsta1/ (accessed on 11 July 2020).
- Abtew, W.; Piccone, T.; Pietro, K.C.; Xue, S.K. Hydrologic and treatment performance of constructed wetlands: The Everglades stormwater treatment areas. In The Wetland Book I: Structure and Function, Management, and Methods; Finlayson, C.M., Everard, M., Irvine, K., McInnes, R.J., Middleton, B.A., Van Dam, A.A., Eds.; Springer Link: New York, NY, USA, 2017; pp. 243–262. [Google Scholar]
- Okin, G.S.; Mahowald, N.; Chadwick, O.A.; Artaxo, P. Impact of desert dust on the biogeochemistry of phosphorus in terrestrial ecosystems. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 2004, 18, GB2005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Heilprin, A. Explorations on the West. Coast. of Florida and in the Okeechobee Wilderness; Wagner Free Institute of Science: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1887. [Google Scholar]
- Will, L.E. Cracker History of Okeechobee; Great Outdoors Press: St. Petersburg, FL, USA, 1956. [Google Scholar]
- Say, T. An account of some of the marine shells of the United States. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. J. 1822, 2, 124–155. [Google Scholar]
- Mewis, J.; Wagner, N.J. Thixotropy. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2009, 147, 214–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Reddy, K.R.; Sheng, Y.P.; Jones, B.L. Lake Okeechobee Phosphorus Dynamics Study; Final report on Contract Number C91–2393; Submitted to the South Florida Water Management District; South Florida Water Management District: West Palm Beach, FL, USA, 1995.
- Fisher, M.; Reddy, K.R.; James, R.T. Long-term changes in sediment chemistry of a large shallow subtropical lake. Lake Reserv. Manag. 2001, 21, 217–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- BEM & University of Florida. Lake Okeechobee Sediment. Quality Final Report; South Florida Water Management District: West Palm Beach, FL, USA, 2007.
- Yan, Y.Y.; James, R.T. Spatial modeling of mud thickness and mud weights (1988–2006), Lake Okeechobee. Fla. Geogr. 2012, 43, 17–36. [Google Scholar]
- Joyner, B.F. Chemical and Biological Conditions of Lake Okeechobee, Florida; Florida Bureau of Geology Report of Investigations No. 71; Florida Bureau of Geology: Tallahassee, FL, USA, 1974.
- Davis, F.E.; Marshall, M.L. Chemical and Biological Investigations of Lake Okeechobee January 1973–June 1974; Interim Report; Southern Florida Flood Control District Technical Publication #75–1; Southern Florida Flood Control District: West Palm Beach, FL, USA, 1976.
- Schottler, S.P.; Engstrom, D.R. A chronological assessment of Lake Okeechobee (Florida) sediments using multiple dating markers. J. Paleoclimnol. 2006, 36, 19–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hwang, K.-N. Erodibility of Fine Sediments in Wave-Dominated Environments. Master’s Thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA, 1989. [Google Scholar]
- Hwang, K.-N.; Mehta, A.J. Fine Sediment. Erodibility in Lake Okeechobee, Florida. Lake Okeechobee Phosphorus Dynamics Study Task 4.4; Report to the South Florida Water Management District; South Florida Water Management District: West Palm Beach, FL, USA, 1989.
- Hansen, P.S.; Philips, E.J.; Aldridge, F.J. The effects of sediment resuspension on phosphorus for algal growth in a shallow subtropical lake, Lake Okeechobee. Lake Reserv. Manag. 1997, 13, 154–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sheng, Y.P.; Lick, W. The transport and resuspension of sediments in a shallow lake. J. Geophys. Res. 1979, 84, 1809–1826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Håkanson, L. Lake bottom dynamics and morphology: The dynamic ratio. Water Resour. Res. 1982, 18, 1444–1450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carper, G.L.; Bachmann, R.W. Wind resuspension of sediments in a prairie lake. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1984, 41, 1763–1767. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luettich, R.A., Jr.; Harleman, D.R.F.; Somlyódy, L. Dynamic behavior of suspended sediment concentrations in a shallow lake perturbated by episodic wind events. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1990, 35, 1050–1067. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bengtsson, L.; Hellström, T. Wind-induced resuspension in a small shallow lake. Hydrobiologia 1992, 241, 163–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blom, G.; Van Duin, E.H.S.; Aalderink, R.H.; Lijklema, L.; Toet, C. Modelling sediment transport in shallow lakes—Interactions sediment transport and sediment composition. Hydrobiologia 1992, 235–236, 153–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blom, G.; Toet, C. Modelling sediment transport and sediment quality in a shallow Dutch lake (Lake Ketel). Wat. Sci. Technol. 1992, 28, 79–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hawley, N.; Lesht, B.M. Sediment resuspension in Lake St. Clair. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1992, 37, 1720–1737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kristensen, P.; Sødergeerd, M.; Jeppersen, E. Resuspension in a shallow eutrophic lake. Hydrobiologia 1992, 228, 101–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Søndergaard, M.; Kristensen, P.; Jepperson, E. Phosphoorus release from suspended sediment in a shallow and wind exposed Lake Arreso, Denmark. Hydrobiologia 1992, 228, 91–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carrick, J.J.; Aldridge, F.J.; Schelske, C.L. Wind influences phytoplankton biomass and composition in a shallow lake. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1993, 38, 1179–1192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Evans, R.D. Empirical evidence of importance of sediment resuspension in lakes. Hydrobiolofis 1994, 284, 5–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huttula, T. Sediment transport in Lake Säkylän Pyhäjärvi. Aqua Fenn. 1994, 24, 171–185. [Google Scholar]
- Podsetchine, V.; Huttula, T. Modelling sedimentation and resuspension in lakes. Water Pollut. Res. J. Can. 1994, 29, 309–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bachmann, R.W.; Hoyer, M.V.; Canfield, D.E., Jr. The potential for wave disturbance in shallow Florida lakes. Lake Reserv. Manag. 2000, 16, 281–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Valipour, R.; Boegman, L.; Bouffard, D.; Rao, Y.R. Sediment resuspension mechanisms and their contributions to high-turbidity events in a large lake. Limnol. Oceanogr. 2017, 62, 1045–1065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mehta, A.J. Lake Okeechobee Phosphorus Dynamics Study. Volume IX. Sediment. Characterization–Resuspension and Deposition Rates; Final Report on Contract C91–2393 Submitted to the South Florida Water Management District; South Florida Water Management District: West Palm Beach, FL, USA, 1991.
- James, R.T.; Martin, J.; Wool, T.; Wang, P.F. A sediment resuspension and water quality model of Lake Okeechobee. J. Am. Water Res. Assoc. 1997, 33, 661–680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maceina, M.J.; Soballe, D.M. Wind related limnological variation in Lake Okeechobee, Florida. Lake Reserv. Manag. 1990, 6, 93–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reddy, K.R. Lake Okeechobee Phosphorus Dynamics Study. Volume II. Physio-Chemical Properties in the Sediments; Final Report Submitted to the South Florida Water Management District; South Florida Water Management District: West Palm Beach, FL, USA, 1991.
- Reddy, K.R. Lake Okeechobee Phosphorus Dynamics Study. Volume III. Biogeochemical Processes in the Sediments; Final Report Submitted to the South Florida Water Management District; South Florida Water Management District: West Palm Beach, FL, USA, 1991.
- Reddy, K.R. Lake Okeechobee Phosphorus Dynamics Study. Volume IV. Biogeochemical Processes in the Sedimentsl; Final Report Submitted to the South Florida Water Management District; South Florida Water Management District: West Palm Beach, FL, USA, 1991.
- Bierman, V.J., Jr.; James, R.T. A preliminary modeling analysis of water quality in Lake Okeechobee, Florida: Diagnostic and sensitivity analysis. Water Res. 1995, 29, 2767–2775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gailani, J.; Ziegler, C.K.; Lick, W. Transport of suspended solids in the Lower Fox River. J. Great Lakes Res. 1991, 17, 479–494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hjulström, F. Studies of the morphological activity of rivers as illustrated by the River Fyris. Bull. Geol. Inst. Upsala 1935, 25, 221–527. [Google Scholar]
- Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP). 2016. Available online: https://legalscoop.lexblogplatform.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/74/2016/07/16155.pdf (accessed on 23 July 2020).
- Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP). Emergency Authorizations to Implement Measures to Address South Florida Algal Blooms. 2018. Available online: https://floridadep.gov/dear/algal-bloom/content/emergency-authorizations-implement-measures-address-south-florida-algal (accessed on 23 July 2020).
- Rosen, B.H.; Davis, T.W.; Gobler, C.J.; Kramer, B.J.; Loftin, K.A. Cyanobacteria of the 2016 Lake Okeechobee Waterway Harmful Algal Bloom; U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2017–1054; U.S. Geological Survey: Tallahassee, FL, USA, 2017. [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kratzer, C.R.; Brezonick, P.L. Application of nutrient loading models to the analysis of trophic conditions in Lake Okeechobee, Florida. Environ. Mgmt. 1984, 8, 109–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aumen, N.G. The history of human impacts, lake management and limnological research of Lake Okeechobee, Florida (USA), Arch. Hydrobiol. Beih. Ergebn. Limnol. 1995, 45, 1–16. [Google Scholar]
- James, R.T.; Jones, B.L.; Smith, V.H. Historical trends in the Lake Okeechobee ecosystem. II. Nutrient budgets. Arch. Hydrobiol. Suppl. Monogr. Beitr. 1995, 107, 24–47. [Google Scholar]
- Allan, J.L. Legacy sediment: Definitions and processes of episodically produced anthropogenic sediment. Anthropocene 2013, 2, 16–26. [Google Scholar]
- Chapra, S.C.; Canale, R.P. Long-term phenomenological model of phosphorus and oxygen for stratified lakes. Wat. Res. 1991, 25, 707–715. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steinmen, A.D.; Havens, K.E.; Auman, N.G.; James, R.T.; Jin, K.J.; Zhang, J.; Rosen, B.H. Phosphorus in Lake Okeechobee, sources, sinks, and strategies. In Phosphorus Biochemistry in Subtropical Ecosystems; Reddy, K.R., O’Conner, G.A., Schelske, C.L., Eds.; Lewis Publishers: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1999; pp. 527–584. [Google Scholar]
- Reddy, K.R.; Flaig, E.; Scinto, L.J.; Diaz, O.; DeBusk, T.A. Phosphorus assimilation in a stream system of the Lake Okeechobee Basin. J. Am. Water Res. Assoc. 1996, 32, 901–915. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moore, A.; Reddy, K.R. Role of Eh and pH on phosphorus geochemistry in sediments of Lake Okeechobee, Florida. J. Environ. Qual. 1994, 23, 955–964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olila, O.C.; Reddy, K.R.; Harris, W.G. Forms and distribution of inorganic phosphorus in sediments of two shallow eutrophic lakes in Florida. Hydrobiologia 1995, 302, 147–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- James, R.T.; Gardner, W.S.; McCarthy, M.J.; Carinia, S.A. Nitrogen dynamics in Lake Okeechobee: Forms, functions, and changes. Hydrobiologia 2011, 669, 199–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cooke, G.D.; Welch, E.B.; Martin, A.B.; Fulmer, D.G.; Hyde, J.B.; Schrieve, G.D. Effectiveness of Al, Ca, and Fe salts for control of internal phosphorus loading in shallow and deep lakes. Hydrobiologia 1993, 253, 323–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, A. Lake Okeechobee Sediment. Management: Greater Everglades Restoration Conference. 2010. Available online: https://conference.ifas.ufl.edu/GEER2010/Presentations/Thursday/Acacia%201–3/am/1120%20A%20Khan.pdf (accessed on 7 July 2020).
- Flores, E.; Herrero, A. Assimilatory nitrogen metabolism and its regulation. In The Molecular Biology of Cyanobacteria; Bryant, D.A., Ed.; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1994; pp. 487–517. [Google Scholar]
- Grossart, H.P.; Simon, M. Limnetic macroscopic organic aggregates (lake snow): Occurrence, characteristics, and microbial dynamics in Lake Constance. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1993, 38, 532–546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tan, X.; Zhang, G.; Yin, H.; Reed, A.H.; Furakawa, Y. Characterization of particle size and settling velocity of cohesive sediments affected by a neutral exopolymer. Int. J. Sediment. Res. 2012, 27, 473–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Missimer, T.M.; Thomas, S.; Rosen, B.H. Legacy Phosphorus in Lake Okeechobee (Florida, USA) Sediments: A Review and New Perspective. Water 2021, 13, 39. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13010039
Missimer TM, Thomas S, Rosen BH. Legacy Phosphorus in Lake Okeechobee (Florida, USA) Sediments: A Review and New Perspective. Water. 2021; 13(1):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13010039
Chicago/Turabian StyleMissimer, Thomas M., Serge Thomas, and Barry H. Rosen. 2021. "Legacy Phosphorus in Lake Okeechobee (Florida, USA) Sediments: A Review and New Perspective" Water 13, no. 1: 39. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13010039
APA StyleMissimer, T. M., Thomas, S., & Rosen, B. H. (2021). Legacy Phosphorus in Lake Okeechobee (Florida, USA) Sediments: A Review and New Perspective. Water, 13(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13010039