Efficacy of Flushing and Chlorination in Removing Microorganisms from a Pilot Drinking Water Distribution System
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Growth or Decay of Microorganisms in Pipe-Loop System
3.2. Biofilm Characteristics
3.3. Flushing with 1.27 m/s
3.4. Role of Waiting Time between Flushing and Sampling
3.5. Attachment of Microorganisms to the Biofilm
3.6. Normal Flushing with 1–1.5 m/s
3.7. Slow Flushing with 0.3 m/s
3.8. Chlorine Disinfection
3.9. Application to Real-Life Situation
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Contamination | E. coli | Enterococci | MS2 | Flushing | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total cfu | Total cfu | Total pfu | |||
A1 | Water | 1.2 × 1010 | 8.1 × 108 | 1.3 × 1011 | 1.27 m/s, 2.5 vol |
A2 | Water | 5.3 × 109 | 4.0 × 108 | 9.7 × 1010 | 1.27 m/s, 2.5 vol |
A3 | Sand and Water | 1.1 × 1010 | 2.6 × 108 | 1.7 × 1011 | 1.27 m/s, 2.5 vol |
A4 | Water | 2.6 × 1010 | 7.4 × 108 | 1.0 × 1011 | 0.45 m/s, 0.9 vol |
E. coli | Clostridium D10 | phiX174 | Flushing | Free Chlorine | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total cfu | cfu/mL | Total cfu | cfu/mL | Total pfu | pfu/mL | |||
B1 | 7.5 × 1010 | 9.4 × 105 | 2.6 × 108 | 3.3 × 103 | - | - | 1.5 m/s, 3 vol | 10 mg/L, 0–24 h |
B2 | 6.3 × 1010 | 5.7 × 105 | 8.4 × 108 | 7.6 × 103 | 1.0 × 1011 | 9.1 × 105 | 1.5 m/s, 3 vol | 10.5 mg/L, 0–24 h |
B3 | 7.9 × 1010 | 7.2 × 105 | 2.0 × 109 | 1.8 × 104 | 5.4 × 1010 | 5.0 × 105 | 1.0 m/s, 3 vol | – |
B4 | 7.5 × 1011 | 6.8 × 106 | 3.4 × 108 | 3.1 × 103 | 9.4 × 1010 | 8.5 × 105 | 0.3 m/s, 3–6–10–15 vol | 10 mg/L, 0–24 h |
B5 | 5.2 × 108 | 5.7 × 1010 | 1.5 × 107 | 1.7 × 109 | 4.0 × 108 | 4.4 × 1010 | 0.3 m/s, 3–6–10–15 vol; 1.5 m/s, 3–6–10–15 vol | - |
E. coli | C. perfringens | phiX174 | Flushing | Free Chlorine | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total cfu | cfu/mL | Total cfu | cfu/mL | Total pfu | pfu/mL | |||
C1 | 5.0 × 1010 | 4.5 × 105 | 1.0 × 109 | 9.2 × 109 | 6.7 × 1010 | 6.1 × 105 | 1.5 m/s, 3 vol | 10 mg/L, 0–24 h |
C2 | 7.5 × 1010 | 5.8 × 105 | 3.2 × 109 | 2.9 × 104 | 4.0 × 1010 | 3.7 × 105 | 1.5 m/s, 3 vol | 10 mg/L, 0–24 h |
C3 | 1.0 × 1011 | 9.5 × 105 | 3.0 × 109 | 2.7 × 104 | 4.7 × 1010 | 4.3 × 105 | 0.3 m/s, 3–6–10–15 vol | 10 mg/L, 0–24 h |
E. coli | C. perfringens | phiX174 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Water | Biofilm | Water | Biofilm | Water | Biofilm | ||
Cultured biofilm | B1 | 99.7 | 0.3 | 27.0 | 73.0 | - | - |
B2 | 87.5 | 12.5 | 72.6 | 27.4 | 99.3 | 0.7 | |
B3 | 86.3 | 13.7 | 76.2 | 23.8 | 99.7 | 0.3 | |
B4 | 93.7 | 6.3 | 28.2 | 71.8 | 98.7 | 1.3 | |
B5 | 99.2 | 0.8 | 84.4 | 15.6 | 99.9 | 0.1 | |
Average ± SD | 93.3 ± 6.3 | 6.7 ± 6.3 | 57.7 ± 27.8 | 42.3 ± 27.8 | 99.4 ± 0.5 | 0.6 ± 0.5 | |
Natural biofilm | C1 | 94.4 | 5.6 | 45.0 | 55.0 | 99.3 | 0.7 |
C2 | 99.1 | 0.9 | 91.8 | 8.2 | 99.8 | 0.2 | |
C3 | 96.5 | 3.5 | 54.0 | 46.0 | 98.8 | 1.2 | |
Average ± SD | 96.7 ± 2.4 | 3.3 ± 2.4 | 63.6 ± 24.9 | 36.4 ± 24.9 | 99.3 ± 0.5 | 0.7 ± 0.5 |
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van Bel, N.; Hornstra, L.M.; van der Veen, A.; Medema, G. Efficacy of Flushing and Chlorination in Removing Microorganisms from a Pilot Drinking Water Distribution System. Water 2019, 11, 903. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11050903
van Bel N, Hornstra LM, van der Veen A, Medema G. Efficacy of Flushing and Chlorination in Removing Microorganisms from a Pilot Drinking Water Distribution System. Water. 2019; 11(5):903. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11050903
Chicago/Turabian Stylevan Bel, Nikki, Luc M. Hornstra, Anita van der Veen, and Gertjan Medema. 2019. "Efficacy of Flushing and Chlorination in Removing Microorganisms from a Pilot Drinking Water Distribution System" Water 11, no. 5: 903. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11050903