Planning Considerations of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) Projects in Jordan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Minimization of evaporation losses compared to surface storage.
- Prevention from direct pollution and pollution accidents.
- Prevention of eutrophication.
- A relatively inexpensive way to store water.
- Improvement of groundwater quality in many areas.
- Further water treatment for some biologically impaired recharge water qualities.
2. Materials and Methods
Factors to Consider When Siting and Designing Mar Facilities and Programs for Arid Regions
3. Case Studies in Applying the Elaborated Factors at the National Scale: Jordan 1990–2017
3.1. Studied Sites (Figure 2)
3.1.1. Highland Wadis
Wadi Madonnah and Wadi Butum
Muwaqqar Area, Wadi Mugheir
- Weir 1 (upstream): 15,580 m3 and 7200 m2.
- Weir 2 (middle): 14,860 m3 and 6000 m2.
- Weir 3 (downstream): 16,560 m3 and 8650 m2.
- Siltation of the bed/foundation/base of the weir is an issue which must be considered seriously when planning such weirs. Measures to minimize siltation or to remove accumulated silt must be in place.
- Flood water in the upstream wadi areas may naturally infiltrate if left to flow along its natural course to the base level making MAR unnecessary in the area, unless other purposes are targeted. For the cases listed in Table 2, this applied to the wadis Mugheir and Madonnah-Bottom. The other recharge sites lay in the downstream areas of the wadis, where, if the water flow is not captured, it will be deposited to the saline water bodies.
Rajil Dam
Other Sites
- Jardaneh dam: The catchment area measures 222 km2, the dam’s capacity is 0.35 MCM, with an evaporation rate of 6.1 L/s and an infiltration rate of 1.9 L/s when filled. Therefore, it was concluded that the dam was not feasible, and it was not constructed.
- Swaqa dam: Catchment area measures 450 km2. The calculated evaporation from this dam proved to be very high at 14 L/s, compared to an infiltration of 0.1 L/s when filled. The dam is currently used for local irrigation.
- Wadi Abu Safat: The reservoir area is considered too big compared to the water depth. It has an evaporation rate of 8.4 L/s and an infiltration rate of 0.4 L/s when filled, as measured by infiltration tests in the area. Therefore, it was concluded that the dam was not feasible, and it was not constructed.
3.1.2. Wadis Draining Towards the Jordan Rift Valley
Wadi Kafrain
Wadi Shueib
- Wadi Sir Formation (A7): 3.4 m/day,
- Shueib Formation (A5–6): 1.8 m/day,
- Fuheis Formation (A3): 3.4 m/day.
3.1.3. Wadis Discharging Directly into the Dead Sea
Wadi Karak
Wadi Wala
3.1.4. BGR-MWI Report
- Source water availability.
- Aquifer storage space.
- Effectiveness of the transfer of source water to the aquifer.
- Demand.
- Operation and maintenance.
- Monitoring.
- Economics.
- Institutions and management capability.
- The catchments’ potential to generate adequate runoff, and
- The suitability of a selected site to harvest the flood water and to allow percolation into the aquifer.
- Specific site investigation must be carried out for each intended recharge scheme in accordance with a set of conditions developed in that study (BGR-MWI).
- Siltation remains the main problem of flood water recharge in arid- and semi-arid climates due to the turbidity of floods in such areas, which reduces when the velocity of the water decreases in the recharge facilities.
- Water heads in recharge facilities play a major role in the recharge.
4. Discussion
4.1. Potential for Artificial Recharge of Groundwater in Jordan
- Azraq Oasis.
- Jafr depression.
- Sirhan Depression.
- Small playas accommodating up to a few thousand of cubic meters of water.
- Red Sea.
- Infiltration to groundwater.
- The Jordan Rift Valley.
4.2. Artificial Recharge of Groundwater Along the Eastern Side Wadis of the Jordan Rift Valley Area
- Alluvial fans along the eastern foothills of the Jordan Rift Valley (Jordan Valley and Wadi Araba) as revealed by geologic mapping, geoelectric soundings, and boreholes [31,34] are extensive, covering areas of km2 and are very thick, 100s of meters. They contain the necessary space to accommodate the recharge water (high storage potentials).
- Clogging by silt and clay or algal materials remains an obstacle, but due to the large area of the potential recharge pools, the flatness of the bottom, the possibility of removing accumulated silt from the bottom, and the possibility of constructing pre-settling pools, the MAR becomes highly viable.
- The large area of excavations in the alluvial fans and their flatness allow for easy mechanical removal of accumulated bottom sediments during dry times.
- The settled sand, silt, and clay at the bottom of excavations serve as a trap for algal materials, which disintegrate in a few days. This makes recharge pools more suitable than any other recharge technique exposed to siltation and clogging.
- For wadis discharging into the Red Sea, there is a very high potential for MAR projects at a distance of, at least, a few hundred meters upstream of the wadi discharge sites into the Sea, where the area consists of extended alluvial fans.
4.3. Leaky Dam
5. Conclusions
5.1. Considerations for the MAR
- Water stored in dams has high evaporation rates, eutrophication processes, and more pollution accidents compared to underground storage.
- In winter time, flood water is lost because of the lack of storage facilities and dam construction is not possible all over the country, especially in small inter-catchments between major wadis.
- When it rains and there is no need for irrigation, the flood and base flows, in addition to treated waste water find no use and no storage facilities.
- Wadis draining into the Jordan Rift Valley drain the groundwater along the major parts of their course before they enter the Rift Valley. Hence, MAR is not feasible in the upstream areas of such wadis (Figure 6).
- MAR along the lower reaches of the wadi catchments, along the foot hills of the Jordan Rift Valley is feasible. The alluvial aquifer can accommodate large amounts of water and any water not stored there will be lost to the saline Dead Sea or the Gulf of Aqaba or to the salty Jordan River. The declining Dead Sea level has started to cause a lowering in the groundwater levels in the wider Dead Sea area, and along the Jordan Valley area. Therefore, groundwater artificial recharge in these areas can alleviate and counteract the drop in the groundwater levels.
- MAR along the upper reaches of the catchments of the wadis draining to east Jordan and ending in the playas, has low potential because that water may infiltrate naturally before it reaches its base level destination (generally a salty playa). MAR at the lower reaches of the catchments of such wadis draining to east Jordan and ending in the playas is highly recommended in such areas, at a few km before the excess water, e.g., flood water, reaches its destination, i.e., a playa or a salty water regime.
- Dams in the area must be built on alluvial fans, and therefore, will be leaky and unstable from an engineering point of view.
- Very high potential evaporation rates (ca. 4400 mm/year).
- MAR can take place all along the wadis, which extend for 10 to 15 km, and which are partly covered by thin alluvial coarse-grained sediments in their upper reaches (1–2 m) and thick ones (few tens of meters) in their lower reaches, underlain by an impermeable granitic basement.
- Relatively low costs for recharge weirs compared to dams.
- In semi-arid areas, specific site investigations must be carried out for each intended recharge scheme, with special attention to the potentials of natural recharge if the water is left to flow along its natural course.
5.2. Lessons Learned
- In semi-arid areas, siltation remains the main problem, which can be partly solved by constructing a series of dams or weirs for water collection, settling of turbidity, and having one dam or weir for infiltration. Water heads in recharge facilities play a very big role in infiltration.
- In the case of Jordan, recharge wells (injection wells) as a method of MAR are excluded because of clogging problems when the flood recharge water is turbid or when the treated waste water containing organic matter particles causes clogging, unless adequate pre-treatment is provided.
- Unavailability of land along the deeply incised steep side wadis of the Jordan Rift Valley makes bank infiltration an improper choice, i.e., there are virtually no banks. Land application and excess irrigation are also not suitable if evaporation rates are high, with heavy use of fertilizers and biocides, and if the recharged water is intended for a use requiring higher quality water.
- Trenches and galleries are viable options for small recharge schemes of a few hundred or thousand cubic meters. Otherwise, they require extended areas of land and changes in the topography, thereby restricting the mobility of man and animals.
5.3 General Conclusions
- The hydrogeological setting should be studied well in advance of any MAR considerations. This includes water quality and water quantity aspects, as well as sediment.
- The vicinity of potential users of the water should be taken into consideration. Good MAR locations might be useless if there are no users nearby.
- The depth to the water table should be not too large, such that one loses the water, and not too small to be able to recharge any water at all. Hence, groundwater discharge regions are by definition not suitable.
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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Purpose of Enhanced Recharge |
|
Availability of Suitable Water for Recharge |
|
Conditions in the Receiving Aquifer |
|
Site Conditions |
|
Methods of Recharge and Abstraction |
|
Cultural, Institutional, and Economic Conditions |
|
Name of Site | No. of Structures | Capacity MCM | Intended Use | Actual Use | Comments and Source of Recharge Water |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Madonnah and Butum (W) | 3 | 0.003–0.066 | R | R | Oversized by 7-fold (F) |
Mugheir (W) | 3 | 0.015, 0.016, and 0.017 | S and R | S and R | University of Jordan study site (F) |
Rajil (Da) | 1 | 3.4 | R | I and limited R | Bottom of low permeability (F) |
Jardaneh W | 1 | 0.35 | R | Not constructed, low infiltration (F) | |
Swaqa (Da) | 1 | Not given, estimated 2.0 | R and I | I | High evaporation, low infiltration (F) |
Kafrain (Da) | 1 | 7.5 | I | I and R | Water harvesting project for irrigation proved to be leaky (B, F, T) |
Shueib (Da) | 1 | 2.3 | I | I and R | Water harvesting project for irrigation proved to be leaky (B, F, T) |
Wala (Da) | 1 | 9.3 | D | D | Water harvesting project for irrigation proved to be leaky (F) |
Area | Site Name and Coordinates | Potential for MAR | Comments |
---|---|---|---|
Jordan Valley (Northern part) | Yarmouk River, Wadi Ziglab, Suleikhat, Wadi Shueib, and Hisban (32°37′58″ N, 35°45′55″ E to 31°51′29″ N, 35°44′07″ E) | Very high | Alluvial fans |
Jordan Valley (Southern part) | Along Wadi Araba (30°40′12″ N, 35°35′50″ E to (29°40′24″ N, 35°06′28″ E) | High: restricted by recharge water availability | Alluvial fans |
Al Jafr | Jafr Depression (30°22′20″ N, 36°11′23″ E) | High: restricted by recharge water availability | Alluvial fans |
Sirhan Depression | Main Wadis (31°00′41″ N, 36°59′30″ E) | Very high | Alluvial fans |
Azraq | Wadi Rajil (31°54′24″ N, 37°10′07″ E) | High | Alluvial fans |
Aqaba | (29°24′04″ N, 35°03′15″ E) | Very high | Alluvial fans |
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Salameh, E.; Abdallat, G.; van der Valk, M. Planning Considerations of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) Projects in Jordan. Water 2019, 11, 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11020182
Salameh E, Abdallat G, van der Valk M. Planning Considerations of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) Projects in Jordan. Water. 2019; 11(2):182. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11020182
Chicago/Turabian StyleSalameh, Elias, Ghaida Abdallat, and Michael van der Valk. 2019. "Planning Considerations of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) Projects in Jordan" Water 11, no. 2: 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11020182
APA StyleSalameh, E., Abdallat, G., & van der Valk, M. (2019). Planning Considerations of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) Projects in Jordan. Water, 11(2), 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11020182