Synergies within the Water-Energy-Food Nexus to Support the Integrated Urban Resources Governance
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Subsystems, Order Parameters and Eigenvectors
2.1. Subsystems and its Order Parameters
2.2. Causal Paths in Order Parameters
2.3. Eigenvectors under Order Parameters
3. Synergetic Model
3.1. Synergetic Model Construction
3.1.1. The Definition of Eigenvector
3.1.2. The Definition of Order Parameters Synergetic Matrix
3.1.3. Synergetic Model of Order Parameters
3.2. Centrality Analysis of Synergetic Networks
3.2.1. Degree Centrality
3.2.2. Betweenness Centrality
3.2.3. Closeness Centrality
4. Synergetic Analysis: Case of Shenzhen City
4.1. Synergy Degree of Order Parameters
4.2. Synergetic Network between Order Parameters
4.3. Centrality Analysis of Synergetic Networks
4.3.1. Degree Centrality
4.3.2. Betweenness Centrality
4.3.3. Closeness Centrality
5. Governance Implications
6. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Nhamo, L.; Ndlela, B.; Nhemachena, C.; Mabhaudhi, T.; Mpandeli, S.; Matchaya, G. The Water-Energy-Food Nexus: Climate Risks and Opportunities in Southern Africa. Water 2018, 10, 567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heard, B.R.; Miller, S.A.; Liang, S.; Xu, M. Emerging challenges and opportunities for the food–energy–water nexus in urban systems. Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng. 2017, 17, 48–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uen, T.S.; Chang, F.J.; Zhou, Y.; Tsai, W.P. Exploring synergistic benefits of Water-Food-Energy Nexus through multi-objective reservoir optimization schemes. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 633, 341–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Olsson, G. Water, energy and food interactions—Challenges and opportunities. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2013, 5, 787–793. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Topi, C.; Esposto, E.; Govigli, V.M. The economics of green transition strategies for cities: Can low carbon, energy efficient development approaches be adapted to demand side urban water efficiency. Environ. Sci. Policy 2016, 58, 74–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Giupponi, C.; Gain, A.K. Integrated spatial assessment of the water, energy and food dimensions of the sustainable development goals. Reg. Environ. Chang. 2017, 17, 1881–1893. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hoff, H. Understanding the Nexus, Background Paper for the Bonn 2011 Conference: The Water, Energy and Food Security Nexus; Stockholm Environment Institute: Stockholm, Sweden, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Muller, M. The ‘Nexus’ as a step back towards a more coherent water resource management paradigm. Water Altern. 2015, 8, 675–694. [Google Scholar]
- Fishman, R.; Devineni, N.; Raman, S. Can improved agricultural water use efficiency save India’s groundwater. Environ. Res. Lett. 2015, 10, 084022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sishodia, R.P.; Shukla, S.; Wani, S.P.; Graham, W.D.; Jones, J.W. Future irrigation expansion outweigh groundwater recharge gains from climate change in semi-arid India. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 635, 725–740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Havlík, P.; Schneider, U.A.; Schmid, E.; Böttcher, H.; Fritz, S.; Skalský, R.; Aokia, K.; de Carae, S.; Kindermanna, G.; Kraxner, F.; et al. Global land-use implications of first and second generation biofuel targets. Energy Policy 2011, 39, 5690–5702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leck, H.; Conway, D.; Bradshaw, M.; Rees, J. Tracing the water-energy-food Nexus: Description, theory and practice. Geogr. Compass 2015, 9, 445–460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Economic Forum (WEF) Water Initiative. Water Security: The Water-Food-Energy-Climate Nexus; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Daher, B.T.; Mohtar, R.H. Water–energy–food (WEF) Nexus Tool 2.0: Guiding integrative resource planning and decision-making. Water Int. 2015, 40, 748–771. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leese, M.; Meisch, S. Securitising sustainability? Questioning the ‘water, energy and food-security nexus’. Water Altern. 2015, 8, 695–709. [Google Scholar]
- Weitz, N.; Strambo, C.; Kemp-Benedict, E.; Nilsson, M. Closing the governance gaps in the water-energy-food nexus: Insights from integrative governance. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2017, 45, 165–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vanham, D.; Leip, A.; Galli, A.; Kastner, T.; Bruckner, M.; Uwizeye, A.; Dijk, K.; Ercin, E.; Dalin, C.; Brandão, M.; et al. Environmental footprint family to address local to planetary sustainability and deliver on the SDGs. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 693, 133642. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Campana, P.E.; Zhang, J.; Yao, T.; Andersson, S.; Landelius, T.; Melton, F.; Yan, J. Managing agricultural drought in Sweden using a novel spatially-explicit model from the perspective of water-food-energy nexus. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 197, 1382–1393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Damerau, K.; Patt, A.G.; van Vliet, O.P.R. Water saving potentials and possible trade-offs for future food and energy supply. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2016, 39, 15–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaddoura, S.; El Khatib, S. Review of water-energy-food Nexus tools to improve the Nexus modelling approach for integrated policy making. Environ. Sci. Policy 2017, 77, 114–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karlberg, L.; Hoff, H.; Amsalu, T.; Andersson, K.; Binnington, T.; Flores-López, F.; de Bruin, A.; Gebrehiwot, S.G.; Gedif, B.; zur Heide, F.; et al. Tackling complexity: Understanding the food-energy-environment nexus in Ethiopia’s Lake tana sub-basin. Water Altern. 2015, 8, 710–734. [Google Scholar]
- Romero-Lankao, P.; McPhearson, T.; Davidson, D.J. The food-energy-water nexus and urban complexity. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2017, 7, 233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martinez-Hernandez, E.; Samsatli, S. Biorefineries and the food, energy, water nexus—Towards a whole systems approach to design and planning. Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng. 2017, 18, 16–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mannschatz, T.; Wolf, T.; Hülsmann, S. Nexus Tools Platform: Web-based comparison of modelling tools for analysis of water-soil-waste nexus. Environ. Model. Softw. 2016, 76, 137–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, X.; Vesselinov, V.V. Integrated modeling approach for optimal management of water, energy and food security nexus. Adv. Water Resour. 2017, 101, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mannan, M.; Al-Ansari, T.; Mackey, H.R.; Al-Ghamdi, S.G. Quantifying the energy, water and food nexus: A review of the latest developments based on life-cycle assessment. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 193, 300–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tang, X.; Jin, Y.; Feng, C.; McLellan, B.C. Optimizing the energy and water conservation synergy in China: 2007–2012. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 175, 8–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qiu, J.; Carpenter, S.R.; Booth, E.G.; Motew, M.; Zipper, S.C.; Kucharik, C.J.; Chen, X.; Loheide, S.P., II; Seifert, J.; Turner, M.G. Scenarios reveal pathways to sustain future ecosystem services in an agricultural landscape. Ecol. Appl. 2018, 28, 119–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Miller-Robbie, L.; Ramaswami, A.; Amerasinghe, P. Wastewater treatment and reuse in urban agriculture: Exploring the food, energy, water, and health nexus in Hyderabad, India. Environ. Res. Lett. 2017, 12, 075005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hannibal, B.; Vedlitz, A. Throwing it out: Introducing a nexus perspective in examining citizen perceptions of organizational food waste in the US. Environ. Sci. Policy 2018, 88, 63–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vanham, D.; Comero, S.; Gawlik, B.M.; Bidoglio, G. The water footprint of different diets within European sub-national geographical entities. Nat. Sustain. 2018, 1, 518–525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vanham, D.; Gawlik, B.M.; Bidoglio, G. Cities as hotspots of indirect water consumption: The case study of Hong Kong. J. Hydrol. 2017, 573, 1075–1086. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wu, F.; Geng, Y.; Tian, X.; Zhong, S.; Wu, W.; Yu, S.; Xiao, S. Responding climate change: A bibliometric review on urban environmental governance. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 204, 344–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Berardy, A.; Chester, M.V. Climate change vulnerability in the food, energy, and water nexus: Concerns for agricultural production in Arizona and its urban export supply. Environ. Res. Lett. 2017, 12, 035004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ozturk, I. The dynamic relationship between agricultural sustainability and food-energy-water poverty in a panel of selected Sub-Saharan African Countries. Energy Policy 2017, 107, 289–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). China City Statistical Book; China Statistics Press: Beijing, China, 2017.
- Water Resources Bureau of Shenzhen Municipality. Shenzhen Water Resources Bulletin; Shenzhen, China, 2018. Available online: http://www.sz.gov.cn/sswj/xxgk/zfxxgkml/szswgk/tjsj/szygb/201808/P020180925634551447544.pdf (accessed on 11 August 2019).
- Jalilov, S.M.; Keskinen, M.; Varis, O.; Amer, S.; Ward, F.A. Managing the water–energy–food nexus: Gains and losses from new water development in Amu Darya River Basin. J. Hydrol. 2016, 539, 648–661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, L.; Pan, B.; Gu, A.; Lu, H.; Wang, W. Energy–water nexus analysis in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region: Case of electricity sector. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 93, 27–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ibarrola-Rivas, M.J.; Granados-Ramírez, R.; Nonhebel, S. Is the available cropland and water enough for food demand? A global perspective of the Land-Water-Food nexus. Adv. Water Resour. 2017, 110, 476–483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silalertruksa, T.; Gheewala, S.H. Land-water-energy nexus of sugarcane production in Thailand. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 182, 521–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Laurentiis, V.; Hunt, D.; Rogers, C. Overcoming food security challenges within an energy/water/food nexus (EWFN) approach. Sustainability 2016, 8, 95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Salmoral, G.; Yan, X. Food-energy-water nexus: A life cycle analysis on virtual water and embodied energy in food consumption in the Tamar catchment, UK. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2018, 133, 320–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gouma, P.I.; Simon, S.R.; Stanacevic, M. Nano-sensing and catalysis technologies for managing food-water-energy (FEW) resources in farming. Mater. Today 2016, 1, 40–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cooke, S.J.; Allison, E.H.; Beard, T.D.; Arlinghaus, R.; Arthington, A.H.; Bartley, D.M.; Cowx, I.G.; Fuentevilla, C.; Leonard, N.J.; Lorenzen, K.; et al. On the sustainability of inland fisheries: Finding a future for the forgotten. Ambio 2016, 45, 753–764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Pringle, A.M.; Handler, R.M.; Pearce, J.M. Aquavoltaics: Synergies for dual use of water area for solar photovoltaic electricity generation and aquaculture. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 80, 572–584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lechón, Y.; De La Rúa, C.; Cabal, H. Impacts of Decarbonisation on the Water-Energy-Land (WEL) Nexus: A Case Study of the Spanish Electricity Sector. Energies 2018, 11, 1203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vilanova, M.R.N.; Balestieri, J.A.P. Exploring the water-energy nexus in Brazil: The electricity use for water supply. Energy 2015, 85, 415–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Compton, M.; Willis, S.; Rezaie, B.; Humes, K. Food processing industry energy and water consumption in the Pacific northwest. Innov. Food. Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2018, 47, 371–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kibler, K.M.; Reinhart, D.; Hawkins, C.; Motlagh, A.M.; Wright, J. Food waste and the food-energy-water nexus: A review of food waste management alternatives. Waste Manag. 2018, 74, 52–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- El Gafy, I.; Grigg, N.; Reagan, W. Dynamic behaviour of the water–food–energy Nexus: Focus on crop production and consumption. Irrig. Drain. 2017, 66, 19–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vora, N.; Shah, A.; Bilec, M.M.; Khanna, V. Food–energy–water nexus: Quantifying embodied energy and GHG emissions from irrigation through virtual water transfers in food trade. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2017, 5, 2119–2128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dorny, C.N. A Vector Space Approach to Models and Optimization; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 1975. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, D.L.; Chuang, H.; Seamons, K. Document ranking and the vector-space model. IEEE Softw. 1997, 14, 67–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salje, E.; Devarajan, V. Phase transitions in systems with strain-induced coupling between two order parameters. Phase Transit. 1986, 6, 235–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Freeman, L.C. Centrality in social networks conceptual clarification. Soc. Netw. 1978, 1, 215–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vanham, D.; Hoekstra, A.Y.; Wada, Y.; Bouraoui, F.; de Roo, A.; Mekonnen, M.M.; van de Bund, W.J.; Batelaan, O.; Pavelic, P.; Bastiaanssen, W.G.M.; et al. Physical water scarcity metrics for monitoring progress towards SDG target 6.4: An evaluation of indicator 6.4.2. “Level of water stress”. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 613, 218–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pittock, J.; Orr, S.; Stevens, L.; Aheeyar, M.; Smith, M. Tackling trade-offs in the nexus of water, energy and food. Aquat. Procedia 2014, 5, 58–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karimi, P.; Qureshi, A.S.; Bahramloo, R.; Molden, D. Reducing carbon emissions through improved irrigation and groundwater management: A case study from Iran. Agric. Water Manag. 2012, 108, 52–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- El Gafy, I.; Grigg, N.; Reagan, W. Water-food-energy nexus index to maximize the economic water and energy productivity in an optimal cropping pattern. Water Int. 2017, 42, 495–503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, Y.; Ng, S.T.; Zhou, S.; Xu, F.J.; Li, H. A physics-based framework for analyzing the resilience of interdependent civil infrastructure systems: A climate extreme event case in Hong Kong. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2019, 47, 101485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Subsystems | Attributes | Order Parameters |
---|---|---|
Water-Subsystem | Supply | supply quantity, conservation quantity |
Demand | total water demand, water for agricultural, dairy farming, fishery, and power generation | |
Energy-Subsystem | Supply | allocation from outside, allocation over outside, energy stock, energy production |
Demand | total energy demand, energy for energy related sectors, water related sectors, and food manufacture | |
Food-Subsystem | Production | gross value of agriculture, total sown areas, cultured areas of aquatic |
Demand | yield of major farm crops, total output of meat, eggs and milk output, aquatic products, food imports |
No. | Causal Paths | Relevant Literature |
---|---|---|
① | water conservation→power generation→electricity (for food production as well) | [38,39] |
② | water conservation→total sown areas→yield of major farm crops (with energy embedded in) | [40,41] |
③ | water consumption→water for dairy farming→total output of meat (with energy embedded in) | [42,43] |
④ | water consumption→water for dairy farming→eggs and milk output (with energy embedded in) | [44] |
⑤ | water consumption→water for fishery→aquatic products (with energy embedded in) | [45] |
⑥ | water consumption→cultured areas of aquatic→aquatic products (with energy embedded in) | [46] |
⑦ | energy production→energy consumption→energy-related sectors (with water embedded in) | [27,47] |
⑧ | energy production→energy consumption→water-related sectors→water consumption | [48] |
⑨ | energy production→energy consumption →manufacture of food (with water embedded in) | [49,50] |
⑩ | energy-related industries→energy production (with water embedded in) | [23] |
⑪ | food imports→gross output of agriculture (with water and energy embedded in) | [51,52] |
No. | Order Parameters | Eigenvectors |
---|---|---|
W1 | water supply quantity | volume of water diversion, surface water, groundwater, and other sources |
W2 | water conservation quantity | volume of total water conservation; number of reservoirs, and water supply reservoirs |
W3 | total water demand | volume of water consumption for whole city, residential sector, and industrial sector |
W4 | water for agricultural | demand of paddy field, irrigated land, vegetable field, timber trees and fruit trees |
W5 | water for dairy farming | demand of meadow, and livestock (consumption of water & water for consumption) |
W6 | water for fishery | volume, average per mu and ratio of replenishment of fishponds |
W7 | water for power generation | capacity, consumption rate and ratio of thermal power generation |
E1 | energy allocation from outside | allocation from other provinces, and imports |
E2 | energy allocation over outside | allocation over other provinces, and exports |
E3 | energy stock | volume of energy stock at the beginning and end of the year, losses, and local consumption |
E4 | energy production | output of primary energy, and electricity |
E5 | total energy demand | volume of end-use, primary industry, and residential demand; total electricity demand |
E6 | energy for food manufacture | volume of gasoline, diesel oil, and electricity |
E7 | energy for energy related sectors | volume of gasoline, diesel oil, natural gas, and electricity |
E8 | energy for water related sectors | volume of diesel oil, natural gas, and electricity |
F1 | gross value of agriculture | value of planting, animal husbandry, fishery, and agricultural services |
F2 | total sown areas | areas of grain crops, cash crops, other crops, and orchards |
F3 | cultured areas of aquatic | areas of seawater, and freshwater |
F4 | yield of major farm crops | yield of grain, peanuts, vegetable, and fruits |
F5 | total output of meat | number of cattle, raised hogs, and raised poultry; output of meat sold |
F6 | eggs and milk output | number of milk cows, output of milk, and fresh eggs |
F7 | aquatic products | volume of seawater aquatic products, and freshwater aquatic products |
F8 | food imports | value of imports of farm production, and food |
Degree Centrality | Betweenness Centrality | Closeness Centrality | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Std Dev | Mean | Std Dev | Mean | Std Dev | |
2010–2011 | 21.34 | 0.19 | 3.52 | 9.89 | 64.53 | 21.27 |
2011–2012 | 22.13 | 0.2 | 2.71 | 7.99 | 56.13 | 22.95 |
2012–2013 | 21.74 | 0.16 | 5.2 | 9.47 | 72.73 | 8.68 |
2013–2014 | 18.57 | 0.16 | 4.25 | 11.05 | 61.53 | 15.48 |
2014–2015 | 11.86 | 0.11 | 4.39 | 8.22 | 44.57 | 21.77 |
2015–2016 | 17.79 | 0.14 | 4.37 | 7.13 | 60.08 | 19.98 |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Li, G.; Wang, Y.; Li, Y. Synergies within the Water-Energy-Food Nexus to Support the Integrated Urban Resources Governance. Water 2019, 11, 2365. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112365
Li G, Wang Y, Li Y. Synergies within the Water-Energy-Food Nexus to Support the Integrated Urban Resources Governance. Water. 2019; 11(11):2365. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112365
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Guijun, Yongsheng Wang, and Yulong Li. 2019. "Synergies within the Water-Energy-Food Nexus to Support the Integrated Urban Resources Governance" Water 11, no. 11: 2365. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112365