Using Stable Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotopes to Distinguish the Sources of Plant Leaf Surface Moisture in an Urban Environment
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Sample Collection
- Leaf surface moisture: Leaf surface moisture was directly collected from plant leaves in situ in the morning using a needle to avoid contamination during the collection process. The samples were sealed in 50 mL plastic bottles.
- Dew: Dew condensation depends on meteorological factors [18,19]. Dew is the highest in July and August in Changchun, so collecting dew samples in these months was convenient. Dew samples were collected using a special collector (beaker made of Teflon) 30 min before sunrise from the beginning of July to the beginning of September.
- Atmospheric vapor: In the dew condensation period, an air condensation compressor (rotating speed = 100–120/s) was used to collect the condensed liquid water of the atmospheric vapor. About 10–15 mL of water was sampled at each time.
- Guttation: The collection of guttation was difficult, and the evaporation of surface water under different temperatures and humidities caused variations in the degree of isotope fractionation. Therefore, the experiment was conducted in situ. The leaves were washed with distilled water at sunset before guttation formed in order to avoid the disturbance of dust on the leaves. The plant leaves were then immediately covered with a plastic bag (l × w = 0.5 m × 0.3 m). The bottoms of the bags were sealed to prevent the entry of vapor from the atmosphere into the plastic bag. The amount of guttation was small. Some parts condensed in the bag, whereas other parts still clung to the rice leaves during collection. The stems of B. sinica were lightly shaken until the guttation on the leaves dropped into the bag to collect the guttation that still clung to the leaves at sunrise. The water in the bag was considered guttation. Each sample was 5–10 mL.
- Soil water: The surface soil samples (0–20 cm) were collected and sealed. An automatic vacuum condensation extraction system (LI-2100) was used to heat and distill water in the soil in an ultra-low-pressure environment and extract water in a low-temperature environment (Figure 2). The principles of ultra-low-pressure vacuum distillation and freezing were applied. Water was collected through condensation at a low temperature without fractional distillation, and 10–15 mL was extracted at a time.
- Rain: Precipitation samples were collected in plastic bottles. The samples were collected immediately after each rain event and then sealed in 100 mL polyethylene bottles to prevent evaporation.
2.3. Sample Measurement
2.4. Data Analysis
2.5. Air Mass Back Trajectory Cluster
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Characteristics of δ18O and δD in Each Type of Water
3.2. Relationship between δ18O and δD in Each Type of Water
3.3. Deuterium Excess in Precipitation and Its Tracing Significance
3.4. Sources of Canopy and Bottom Dew
4. Conclusions
- (a)
- The trend of stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes of rainwater, soil water, atmospheric vapor, and dew from the beginning of June to the end of September was basically consistent. Significant correlations were obtained between leaf surface moisture and atmospheric vapor or dew, thereby confirming that a hydraulic relationship existed among the four types of water.
- (b)
- δ18O and δD of leaf surface moisture among soil water, atmospheric vapor, and plant guttation demonstrated that leaf surface moisture was composed of these three types of water. Rain was not directly part of the dew, but vapor condensation became an important part of the dew after water evaporated. Therefore, various air masses and moisture sources affected the isotope compositions of dew.
- (c)
- Atmospheric vapor contributed 81.8%–94.8% and 81.1%–93.6% vapor source to dew at the canopy and the bottom, respectively. The outside water vapor was the main source of urban plants’ dew. Urban ecosystem dew condensation at night served as input water, which could be absorbed or replenished by plants during evaporation.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Site | Changchun, China | Xishuangbanna, China | Luan Cheng, China | Montpellier, France | Minneapolis–St Paul, USA | Negev Desert, Israel | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coordinates | 44°15′ N, 126°18′ E | 21°56’ N, 101°15’ E | 37°50’ N, 114°40’ E | 43°36’ N, 3°53’ E | 34°46’ N, 30°51’ E | ||||||||||||
Reference | This Study | [39] | [5] | [24] | [16] | [2] | |||||||||||
Plant Type | Buxus sinica var. parvifolia M. Cheng | Arbor | Wheat | Maize | Alfalfa | Soybean | Salsola. inermis Forssk | Artemisia sieberi Besser | Haloxylon scoparium Pomel | ||||||||
Mean δ18O | Mean δD | δ18O | δD | Mean δ18O | Mean δD | Mean δ18O | Mean δD | δ18O at 4:00 in Summer | δD at 4:00 in Summer | Mean δ18O | δ18O | δD | δ18O | δD | δ18O | δD | |
−7.4 ± 1.5 | −63.5 ± 12.5 | −6.2 ~ 1.9 | −30 ~ 27 | −1.2 ± 2.4 | −13.4 ± 16.7 | −4.9 ± 1.5 | −44.1 ± 10.4 | −6.4 | −17.8 | −3.6 ± 0.6 | −6 ~ −1 | −22 ~ 10 | −5.5 ~ 2.5 | −20 ~ 11 | −5.9 ~ 1.5 | −21 ~ 12 |
Date | Canopy Leaf Surface Moisture (%) | Bottom Leaf Surface Moisture (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Guttation | Atmosphere | Soil | Guttation | Atmosphere | Soil | |
June 13th | 3.2 ~ 4.6 | 75.3 ~ 89.8 | 7 ~ 20.1 | 0 ~ 1.2 | 84.0 ~ 94.8 | 5.2 ~ 14.8 |
June 26th | 0.5 ~ 2.3 | 68.9 ~ 95 | 4.5 ~ 28.8 | 0 ~ 2.3 | 87.9 ~ 94.4 | 5.6 ~ 9.8 |
July 4th | 2.1 ~ 5.3 | 78.3 ~ 91.4 | 6.5 ~ 16.4 | 0 ~ 0.4 | 78.9 ~ 91.7 | 8.3 ~ 20.7 |
July 11st | 2.1 ~ 4.7 | 84.6 ~ 93 | 2.3 ~ 13.3 | 1.8 ~ 2.3 | 68.3 ~ 87.6 | 10.6 ~ 29.4 |
August 8th | 0 ~ 1.9 | 89.8 ~ 94.2 | 5.8 ~ 8.3 | 0 ~ 1.4 | 82 ~ 94 | 6 ~ 16.6 |
August 14nd | 1.7 ~ 3.4 | 82.2 ~ 96.5 | 1.8 ~ 14.4 | 0 ~ 0.3 | 81.2 ~ 92.2 | 7.8 ~ 18.5 |
August 30th | 2.3 ~ 6.7 | 67.9 ~ 87.4 | 5.9 ~ 29.8 | 1.4 ~ 2.8 | 78.3 ~ 92.5 | 4.7 ~ 20.3 |
August 31st | 0.7 ~ 2.1 | 89.2 ~ 91.2 | 6.7 ~ 10.1 | 1 ~ 2.8 | 74.3 ~ 93.2 | 5.8 ~ 22.9 |
September 2nd | 1.1 ~ 2.9 | 79.2 ~ 90.1 | 7 ~ 19.7 | 0.5 ~ 0.7 | 85.9 ~ 94.6 | 4.9 ~ 13.4 |
September 12nd | 0.4 ~ 0.6 | 82.4 ~ 95.9 | 3.5 ~ 17.2 | 0 ~ 1.4 | 79.3 ~ 95.2 | 4.8 ~ 19.3 |
Average | 2.4 ± 1.6(18O) ~ 2.5 ± 2.1(D) | 79.8 ± 7.5(18O) ~ 92.4 ± 3.0(D) | 5.1 ± 2.0(D) ~ 17.8 ± 7.1(18O) | 0.6 ± 1.0(D) ~ 1.4 ± 0.8(18O) | 80.0 ± 5.7(18O) ~ 93.0 ± 2.3(D) | 6.4 ± 1.9(D) ~ 18.6 ± 5.4(18O) |
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Xu, Y.; Yi, Y.; Yang, X.; Dou, Y. Using Stable Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotopes to Distinguish the Sources of Plant Leaf Surface Moisture in an Urban Environment. Water 2019, 11, 2287. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112287
Xu Y, Yi Y, Yang X, Dou Y. Using Stable Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotopes to Distinguish the Sources of Plant Leaf Surface Moisture in an Urban Environment. Water. 2019; 11(11):2287. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112287
Chicago/Turabian StyleXu, Yingying, Yan Yi, Xu Yang, and Yingbo Dou. 2019. "Using Stable Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotopes to Distinguish the Sources of Plant Leaf Surface Moisture in an Urban Environment" Water 11, no. 11: 2287. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112287