Is Hadley Cell Expanding?
Abstract
:1. What Is the Hadley Cell?
2. Hadley Cell Edge Identifications
2.1. Theories for Hadley Cell Width
2.2. Metrics of Hadley Cell Edge
2.2.1. Dynamical Metrics
2.2.2. Hydrological Metrics
2.2.3. Thermal Metrics
2.2.4. Chemical Metrics
2.3. Datasets for Hadley Cell Edge Studies
2.3.1. Mandatory Observations
2.3.2. Satellite
2.3.3. Reanalysis
2.3.4. Climate Model Outputs
3. Is the Hadley Cell Expanding?
3.1. Rates of Hadley Cell Expansion
3.2. Reasons for Discrepancy among Trends in Hadley Cell Expansion
4. What Are the Factors behinds the Expansion?
4.1. Sensitivity of Hadley Cell Extent to Different Forcings
4.1.1. Nature Variability
4.1.2. Volcanic Eruptions
4.1.3. Ozone Depletion
4.1.4. Greenhouse Gases
4.1.5. Anthropogenic Aerosols
4.2. Validation of Scaling Theories
5. What Are the Impacts Caused by the Tropical Widening?
6. Summary
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Metric | Reference | Definition |
---|---|---|
Hu and Fu [33] | Zero-crossing of the meridional overturning streamfunction at 500 hPa. | |
Davis and Birner [34] | Zero contour of the vertically averaged meridional overturning streamfunction. | |
Davis and Birner [32] | Latitude at which the greatest meridional gradient in the streamfunction occurs. | |
SLP | Choi et al. [35] | Subtropical high-pressure ridge. |
Davis and Birner [36] | Near surface wind zero crossing. | |
STJ | Davis and Birner [36] | Subtropical jet stream from the location maximum winds aloft. |
EDJ | Kang and Polvain [37] | Latitude at which the maximum 850 hPa zonal wind occurs. |
Allen et al. [38] | Latitude where the maximum the vertically integrated zonal momentum occurs. | |
Chemke and Polvani [39] | The latitude of maximum eddy momentum flux. |
Metric | Reference | Definition |
---|---|---|
Staten et al. [44] | The latitude of the maximum total precipitation between 30 and 70 latitude. | |
Allen et al. [45] | The latitude of the minimum of total precipitation in the subtropics. | |
Davis and Birner [32] | Latitude of the minimum of the difference precipitation minus evaporation. | |
Lu et al. [6] | Latitude of the zero-crossing of the difference precipitation minus evaporation. | |
Allen et al. [45] | The latitude of the minimum of subtropical cloud coverage. | |
OLR | Solomon et al. [46] | Latitude of a given value of outgoing longwave radiation occurs. |
OLR | Mantsis et al. [47] | Latitude where zonal mean OLR drops 20 W m on the poleward side of the subtropical maximum. |
Metric | Reference | Definition |
---|---|---|
Lu et al. [55] | Latitude of 15 km tropopause altitude. | |
Seidel and Randel [52] | Poleward latitude of a given frequency of high tropical tropopause altitudes. | |
Davis and Rosenolof [40] | The latitude at which the greatest zonal gradient in tropopause altitude occurs. | |
TPB | Xian and Homeyer [53] | Tropopause break, where the tropopause altitudes changes from the tropical one to the |
extratropical one abruptly. | ||
LST | Fu and Lin [56] | The maximum cooling in the lower stratosphere due to a poleward shift of subtropical jets. |
GTT | Fu et al. [57] | The global distribution of tropospheric and stratospheric temperature changes. |
Metric | Reference | Definition |
---|---|---|
TCO | Hudson et al. [59] | The ozone value for the boundary of the subtropical front. |
Shah et al. [42] | Latitude where the concentration of a specific tracer gas deviate by 1 from its tropical average. | |
Sparling [60] | Latitude of subtropical minimum in the probability density function of a specific tracer concentration. | |
GWL | Davis and Rosenlof [40] | Latitude weighted by the gradient in a specific tracer concentrations. |
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Xian, T.; Xia, J.; Wei, W.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, R.; Wang, L.-P.; Ma, Y.-F. Is Hadley Cell Expanding? Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1699. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12121699
Xian T, Xia J, Wei W, Zhang Z, Wang R, Wang L-P, Ma Y-F. Is Hadley Cell Expanding? Atmosphere. 2021; 12(12):1699. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12121699
Chicago/Turabian StyleXian, Tao, Jingwen Xia, Wei Wei, Zehua Zhang, Rui Wang, Lian-Ping Wang, and Yong-Feng Ma. 2021. "Is Hadley Cell Expanding?" Atmosphere 12, no. 12: 1699. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12121699