The Role of Epithelial Damage in the Pulmonary Immune Response
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Sensing Danger: PAMP and DAMP Signalling
3. Epithelial–Immune Cell Cross Talk
4. Epithelial–Fibroblast Cross Talk
5. Epithelial Damage and COPD
6. Epithelial Damage and IPF
7. Epithelial Damage and COVID-19
8. Epithelial Damage and Senescence
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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DAMP Ligand | Known Receptors | Evidence in Disease | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Intracellular-Nuclear DAMPs | |||
HMGB1 | TLR2, TLR4, TLR9, RAGE, CXCR4 | Ischaemia reperfusion injury, sepsis, acute lung injury, chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, viral infection, cancer | [34,36,37,38,39,40,41,42] |
HMGN1 | TLR4 | Cancer | [43,44,45] |
IL-1α | TLR2, TLR4, TLR7, TLR8, TLR9, IL-1R | Chronic inflammatory disease, sepsis, cancer | [46,47,48,49] |
IL-33 | ST2 | Asthma, atopic dermatitis, anaphylaxis, allergic inflammation, fibrosis | [46,47,48,50,51,52] |
DNA | TLR9, AIM2 | Kidney disease, inflammation, cancer | [53,54,55,56,57,58] |
RNA | TLR3, TLR7, TLR8, MDA5 | Autoimmune disease, sepsis, acute lung injury, liver injury | [34,56,59,60,61,62] |
SAP130 | MINCLE | Inflammatory disease and fibrosis | [30,63] |
Histones | TLR2, TLR4 | Sepsis, trauma, acute liver failure, kidney injury, acute lung injury | [64,65,66,67,68] |
Intracellular-Cytosolic DAMPs | |||
ATP | P2X7, P2Y2 | Sepsis, hypoxia, mechanical ventilation, migraine, stroke, cancer | [34,69,70,71] |
Heat shock proteins | TLR2, TLR4, CD91, CD14, CD40 | Sepsis, acute lung injury, cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, neuroinflammation | [34,72,73,74] |
Uric acid | NLRP3, P2X7 | Acute inflammation, ventilator-induced lung injury, kidney disease, gout | [34,75,76] |
S100 proteins | TLR2, TLR4, RAGE | Endotoxin-induced shock, cancer, autoimmune disease, kidney disease, osteoarthritis | [34,77,78,79] |
Galectins | CD2 | Cancer, fibrosis, chronic inflammation, infection | [80,81] |
CIRP | TLR-MD2 | Haemorrhagic shock, sepsis | [53,82] |
Amyloid-β | TLR2, NLRP1, NLRP3, RAGE | Alzheimer’s disease | [83,84] |
Intracellular-Mitochondrial DAMPs | |||
mROS | NLRP3 | Neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disease, gastrointestinal disorders | [85,86] |
Formyl peptides | FPR1 | systemic inflammatory response syndrome, acute inflammation | [87,88] |
Cytochrome C | TLR4 | Neuroinflammation | [89,90] |
mtDNA | TLR9 | Trauma haemorrhage, sickle cell disease, arthritis, inflammation | [85,91,92,93,94] |
Extracellular DAMPs | |||
Heparan sulfate | TLR4 | Alzheimer’s disease, autoimmune disease, inflammatory disease | [95] |
Fibronectin | TLR4 | Diabetes, inflammation, fibrosis, liver disease, kidney disease | [96,97,98,99,100] |
Fibrinogen | TLR4 | Cancer, fibrosis, kidney disease | [99,101] |
Hyaluronan | TLR2, TLR4, NRLP3 | Fibrosis, arthritis, inflammation, kidney disease | [98,102,103] |
Versican | TLR2, TLR6, CD14 | Inflammatory lung diseases, cancer, kidney disease | [104] |
Decorin | TLR2, TLR4 | Chronic inflammation, fibrosis | [105] |
Biglycan | TLR2, TLR4, NRLP3 | Acute kidney injury, chronic inflammation | [106,107] |
Laminin | TLR4 | Autoimmune disease, fibrosis, chronic inflammatory disease, liver disease, cancer | [100,108] |
Tenascin C | TLR4 | Injury, fibrosis, infection, cancer | [109,110] |
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Burgoyne, R.A.; Fisher, A.J.; Borthwick, L.A. The Role of Epithelial Damage in the Pulmonary Immune Response. Cells 2021, 10, 2763. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10102763
Burgoyne RA, Fisher AJ, Borthwick LA. The Role of Epithelial Damage in the Pulmonary Immune Response. Cells. 2021; 10(10):2763. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10102763
Chicago/Turabian StyleBurgoyne, Rachel Ann, Andrew John Fisher, and Lee Anthony Borthwick. 2021. "The Role of Epithelial Damage in the Pulmonary Immune Response" Cells 10, no. 10: 2763. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10102763
APA StyleBurgoyne, R. A., Fisher, A. J., & Borthwick, L. A. (2021). The Role of Epithelial Damage in the Pulmonary Immune Response. Cells, 10(10), 2763. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10102763