Saffron—Red Gold: Enhancing Its Profitability Through the Sustainable Cultivation and Valorization of Its By-Products ^†

Abstract

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), a perennial plant of the Iridaceae family, which is also known as “red gold”, is one of the most expensive spices throughout the world. Originally, it was mainly used as a condiment and natural dye for food, and as a medicinal plant in folk medicine. Its cultivation is characterized by an extensive use of labor, since most of the crop management techniques (e.g., sowing, weeding, flower picking, and stigma separation) are performed manually. The aim of this work is to investigate how the adoption of sustainable cultivation techniques could improve the profitability of saffron at the primary level. Thus, economic and technical data were collected directly on a farm in a marginal area in Northwestern Italy, in order to compare the productivity and profitability of traditional and innovative cultivation techniques. The effect of sustainable practices, such as the use of beneficial microorganisms, that is, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), on the productivity of saffron was considered. In a previous work, AMF inoculation with Rhizophagus intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae led to an increase in the flower and saffron spice yields, compared to uninoculated controls. The profitability of the saffron (including tepals, its by-product) considered in our case study, expressed as economic profit (pure profit), was found to be slightly negative for the traditional cultivation method (without the use of AMF) and also, albeit to a lesser extent, for the innovative technology (with the use of AMF). This slightly negative result is mainly due to the implicit cost of family labor for both the traditional and innovative cultivation techniques. The results of our study can be considered a further step in favor of the use of cultivation techniques that improve crop productivity and, at the same time, are sustainable. They also support the spread of minor crops, which, nevertheless, are important to maintain agricultural activities in marginal territories.

1. Introduction

Saffron consists of the dried stigmas of Crocus sativus L., a medicinal and aromatic plant known for over 4,000 years and traditionally used as a spice in food, as a coloring agent, as a tonic agent in folk medicine, and in cosmetic and perfume preparations. The plant is made up of a corm, leaves, and flowers (tepals, stamens, and a pistil ending in three red stigmas) [1]. Saffron is currently primarily used in food, beverages, and dietary supplements. However, its full potential remains largely underexploited. In recent years, its use has progressively expanded to a growing number of industrial sectors, including pharmaceuticals and cosmetics [2]. Its organoleptic properties are mainly derived from specific apocarotenoids: crocins (color), picrocrocins (bitter taste), and safranal (aroma). Saffron is classified into three quality categories (I, II, and III) on the basis of the concentrations of these key metabolites [3]. It also contains flavonoids, phenolic acids, and vitamin C [4]. The flavor and color of saffron are attractive for food and beverage productions, while the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties are of interest for cosmetics. Moreover, its use in the pharmaceutical industry is linked, inter alia, to its potential anti-cancerous and antidepressant properties.

The cultivation of saffron, like any other medicinal and aromatic plant, is of interest at the primary level because it can contribute, to the diversification of farm production and income [5,6]. Its excellent organoleptic properties, combined with the intensive labor required for production—particularly the daily flower harvesting and stigma separation—are the main reasons behind the high market price of saffron, which is often referred to as “red gold”. In Italy, in the year 2021, the average farm-gate price was EUR 23.68 ± 6.95 per gram (from EUR 5 to 40 per gram) [6]. In 2017, the market value of saffron was equal to USD 390 million, and it is forecast to rise to USD 555 million by 2026 [7]. The main saffron-exporting countries in 2022 were Spain, the United Arab Emirates, the Netherlands, and France, with values of USD 51.83, 13.8, 3.26, and 2.98 million, respectively [7]. Spain (21%), India (17%), Brazil (12%), the United States (8.5%), and Italy (7%) are some of the main saffron-importing countries [8]. Italy imports approximately 22,472 kg of saffron annually, which corresponds to a market value of about EUR 22.9 million, while exports are equal to EUR 0.55 million [9]. Saffron is mainly commercialized as dried stigmas or powder.

Saffron, being a sterile geophyte, is propagated via underground corms. Saffron corms are vegetative storage organs that have one to three apical buds, which generate leaves, flowers, and new corms, as well as several axillary buds. In Mediterranean climates, sprouting occurs in late fall (October–November) over a period of two to three weeks. Flowering is followed by a winter vegetative phase, during which leaves fully develop and daughter corms form and subsequently replace the mother corm in spring (April–May), when the leaves and roots senesce, and the corms enter dormancy [10]. Corm size is a key factor in determining the yield of the flowers, spice, and daughter corms, as larger corms contain more nutrient reserves. Corms ≥ 10 g are generally used for commercial cultivation purposes [10]. Cultivation is typically carried out in open fields, under a perennial cycle of 3–5 years. However, saffron can also be grown as an annual crop, with only the largest daughter corms being replanted each year [10]. The yield of saffron is also influenced by soil, climate conditions, and agronomic practices. Its yield—dried stigmas—can vary from 2 to 30 kg/ha. A total of 5.4 kg/ha was recorded in Iran in 1999, 15 kg/ha in Spain, and 29 kg/ha in Navelli, Italy [10]. Many different environments are suitable for the cultivation of saffron. Indeed, saffron can tolerate a wide variety of pedo-climatic conditions; it can survive frost to temperatures of −10 °C and short periods of snow cover, but it performs best in a Mediterranean climate (hot, dry summers and mild winters) [11]. Saffron is mainly cultivated in the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean regions [1]. The leading production countries in 2019 were Iran (430 t, 91% of the world’s production), India (22 t), Greece (7.2 t), and Afghanistan (1.27 t) [7]. The production has increased in Iran [1] (108,000 ha and 376 t in 2017, mostly in the Khorasan province), as it has in Afghanistan (the Herat Province, 7557 ha), India (the Jammu and Kashmir regions, 3674 ha), Greece (mainly around Kozani, 1000 ha), Morocco (mainly around Taliouine, 850 ha), Spain (Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Toledo, Cuenca, and Ciudad Real, 150 ha), and Italy (70 ha). However, saffron production has been seriously challenged over the last few decades in European countries because of increased manual labor costs, climate change, soil contamination, and the spread of diseases [1]. Saffron production has decreased by around 98% in Spain (where the saffron cultivation area was about 6000 ha in 1971), 38% in Greece (1600 ha in 1982), and 98% in the Abruzzo Region in central Italy (300 ha in 1910) [12]. Saffron, and medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) in general, are often cultivated in marginal areas of a territory, in hills and mountains, and they are grown on poor soil that is often abandoned or uncultivated. However, MAPs represent a means of enhancing and protecting these areas from degradation. When incorporated into multifunctional farms, as is often the case, they can be used to spread knowledge (about their cultivation, processing, and uses) through specific training activities that also contribute to the development of rural tourism.

In 2019, saffron cultivation in Italy covered approximately 250 hectares, accounting for 0.6% of the total area dedicated to MAPs [13]. Currently, about 320 farms specialize in saffron cultivation, with individual field sizes ranging from 200 to 5,000 m². Approximately 37 hectares are concentrated in Sardinia, particularly in the Medio Campidano area, where some plots exceed 10,000 m². Other important production areas include Abruzzo, Tuscany, Umbria, and Marche, while, in recent years, new cultivation zones have emerged in such regions/areas as Sicily, Cinque Terre, Valtellina, Apulia, and Tuscia [9]. Italian saffron is recognized because of its high quality, and it is protected under three PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) labels: Zafferano dell’Aquila, Zafferano di San Gimignano, and Zafferano di Sardegna [9]. Small-sized cultivations can be found throughout almost the entire Italian Peninsula, including the Northwestern and Northeastern parts of the Italian Alps, where their cultivation has recently been introduced to diversify agricultural production [4,5,6]. As far as Northwestern Italy is concerned, we have noted that, in the Piedmont Region, although saffron is mainly cultivated in the Monferrato hills (provinces of Asti, Alessandria), it has also begun to be of interest for companies located in other provinces (Turin and Cuneo) and in the Lake Maggiore area. Saffron is also present in the neighboring and mountainous Aosta Valley Region as a ‘non-exclusive’ cultivation. In 2023, Italy produced about 1 t per year [7] or less [6].

In order to complete the picture of Italian saffron at the primary level, Giupponi et al. (2023) [6] summarized the results of a recent questionnaire survey that was administered to saffron growers (140 respondents, a non-representative sample). The survey highlighted that saffron cultivation was mainly ‘a secondary business’, and a high percentage (23%) of hobbyists emerged. A total of 38% of the respondents were young (below 40 years of age), with a high level of education (Secondary High School diploma or University degree), and many of them had neither a specific agricultural background nor came from farming families. The surface dedicated to saffron cultivation was found to generally be small in size: less than 500 m² for 48% of the respondents, and the cultivation was only realized by family members. A multi-year cycle of five years (54%) was mainly adopted, and most of the respondents self-produced the corms (propagative material) and did not use irrigation. The main product was dried stigmas, which were generally sold at the local level. The preferred distribution channel was direct on-farm sales, followed by web marketing. The annual revenues of 44% of the growers were less than or equal to EUR 1,000. Many growers certificated their production through voluntary schemes (e.g., ISO), the EU’s Protected Denomination of Origin (PDO), or Organic Certification. The majority of growers were members of producer associations [6]. Only a few studies have investigated the economic aspects of saffron cultivation in Italy. Manzo et al. (2015) [14] conducted a cost–benefit analysis of saffron cultivation on ten farms in mountainous areas of the Lombardy Region. They found that the total cost of saffron production, for a 5-year cycle, amounted to USD 29,695 (64.7% family labor), and 42.3% of the costs arose in the 1^st year (mainly corm cost and planting work). The net farm income (inclusive of the family labor cost and working capital reward) was USD 21,775 for 5 years. Moreover, the Internal Rate of Return of the Investment resulted in being greater than the opportunity cost of the working capital. They concluded that it was possible to improve the economic results of saffron cultivation by adopting a more efficient manual operation and a cultivation cycle of up to 10 years. Macaluso et al. (2024) [13] examined the structural characteristics and economic outcomes of Italian farms (data from the Farm Accountancy Data Network) that grew MAPs, and they expressed the profitability of some of the species (saffron, rosemary, lavender, oregano, and sage) as the total gross output (TGO) and gross margin (GM) (Appendix B). The best performances were observed for saffron and for rosemary. Moreover, for saffron cultivation the propagation accounted for 50% of the variable costs. According to Mehemeti et al. (2024) [15], saffron cultivation in the Basilicata region in Southern Italy, had a production cost of 98,435 EUR/ha and a net return margin of 172,680 EUR/ha, due to the high market price and by-product revenues. They suggested investments to improve the yield and resource efficiency in order to increase the eco-efficiency of saffron cultivation [15]. The by-products of saffron could be another important source of income for saffron producers. Marrone et al. (2024) [16] indicated that 110,000–170,000 flowers were needed for the production of 1 kg of dried stigmas. The tepals, stamens, and leaves of saffron are rich in carotenoids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and phenolic acids. Moreover, the flowers are edible, and they can be used for human food or feed [16]. Saffron tepals are abundant in flavonoids (anthocyanins), have health-promoting properties, including antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities [4,17,18], and can serve as functional ingredients for enriched food and cosmetics [19].

With this work, presented while still in progress at the International Conference Innovations for Sustainable Crop Production in the Mediterranean Region ISPAMed 2024 [20], we wish to achieve a deeper understanding of a niche crop that can help preserve agricultural activities in marginal areas, e.g., in mountainous and hilly areas, because of the high quality of its spice and its potentially high profitability [13].

However, it should be underlined that no studies exist on the Italian situation that have connected the profitability of saffron with the use of AMF or that offer an economic assessment on the use of its by-products.

Analyses of the costs and economic benefits of AMF inoculation are often lacking in the scientific literature, especially for Italian areas, and those that exist tend to focus primarily on the physiological and agronomic effects of AMF on plants. This study aims to address this gap by providing a detailed evaluation of the profitability of AMF inoculation in saffron cultivation. By combining agronomic performance data with an economic assessment, it seeks to offer a practical example of how sustainable practices can be both productive and financially viable, particularly in marginal agricultural areas. We decided to translate the effect of AMF into economic data because the available agronomic data showed a positive effect on the yield of saffron spice and on the by-products.

The specific goal of this work has been to compare the economic results of traditional (without AMF) and innovative (with AMF) cultivation techniques on a farm in Northwestern Italy, because agronomic data were available, as reported in the study by Caser et al. (2019) [5] (see Methodology, Agronomic Analysis). They were collected in such an area and have here been used to perform an economic assessment.

These data have shown a positive effect on the number of flowers and on the spice and by-product yields. The choice of considering the profits and costs of the tepals, even though they have not yet been used on the farm considered in our case study, is connected to the growing attention and spread of such practices as the valorization of by-products, which falls into the context of the “circular economy”. Indeed, the violet tepals of the flower—dried and used for human food—have long been considered a waste of saffron cultivation practices, although they have health-promoting properties (e.g., antioxidant and antidepressant) and could generate a new source of income from saffron [4,15,21,22]. Moreover, tepals, in the case of saffron, are the most abundant by-products in quantity terms.

Thus, our research question (RQ) was as follows: Does the use of AMF and the valorization of saffron by-products contribute to the improvement of its profitability?

Hypothesis: The total output (revenues), costs, and economic profits of saffron can be (positively) influenced by both the use of AMF and through the valorization of its tepals.

Assumptions: The constancy of the effect of AMF inoculation on the yield of flowers per corm, flowers per m², and mg of saffron spice per m² [5] was only compared over a period of two years because the agronomic data were only collected for two subsequent years of cultivation. Thus, we assumed that the effect of inoculation was also constant for the third, fourth, and fifth years of cultivation (years of full production), while the implicit costs (family work, the cost of the capital belonging to the producer) were calculated by referring to the opportunity cost concept, and were thus estimated, and the by-products, such as the tepals, whose cost was the result of an estimation, were transformed and sold. In order to avoid any misunderstanding, it should be pointed out that the studied farm currently does not produce or sell tepals due to a lack of family labor, and the tepals are considered waste. However, the producer intends to valorize the tepals in the future, and we therefore estimated their revenue and cost of production.

Our calculations show that the economic profit is slightly negative, more so for the traditional technique than for the innovative one (with AMF) for the full-production years because the cost of production is high due to the implicit cost of family labor, which, as is well known, does not represent an actual outlay for a farm.

2. Materials and Methods

As previously mentioned, the agronomic data were obtained in a previous study with the aim of “assessing AMF symbiosis in open field conditions and their effect on the plant growth, productivity, and bioactive compound content of saffron in an Alpine area” [5]. Thus, the considered data were not collected specifically for the presented economic analysis here and were instead only used for it.

2.1. Agronomic Analysis

Caser et al. (2019) [5] performed a trial in two Alpine experimental sites, that is, in the Alpine fields in Northwestern Italy, in the Aosta Valley near Morgex (45°45′35.1″ N; 7°02′37.3″ E; 1000 m a.s.l.), and in Saint Cristophe (45°45′06.9″ N; 7°20′37.0″ E; 700 m a.s.l.). In their work, the farmer planted C. sativus L. corms, between 2.5 and 3.5 cm in size, at the end of August 2016. The cultivation was conducted over two growing seasons (2016–2017 and 2017–2018). The productivity data of saffron reported by Caser et al. (2019) [5] and used here for the economic analysis—namely, the number of flowers (n./m² and n./corm) and saffron yield (mg/m²)—are average values of the two Alpine sites and the two growing seasons. The sites are characterized by a semi-continental Alpine climate with long, cold winters and sandy-loam soil, according to the USDA classification.

The corms were treated with 10 g of an AMF inoculum containing Rhizophagus intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae (MycAgro Lab, Breteniére, France). The inoculum was placed underneath each corm to ensure direct contact between the fungi and the plant roots. Control corms were left uninoculated.

A randomized block design, comprising three plot units (blocks), was implemented. Each experimental plot consisted of 56 corms, which were planted within a 1.44 m² area, thereby corresponding to a density of 39 corms/m². The spacing between corms within the rows was 7 cm, and the distance between rows was 25 cm.

Irrigation was provided when needed, and manual weeding was performed throughout the cultivation period. No fertilization, soil tillage, or pathogen treatments were applied prior to planting.

The number of flowers harvested per corm was recorded daily during flowering (November 2016 and 2017). The saffron spice yield was determined by drying stigmas at 40 °C for 8 h in an oven.

2.2. Economic Analysis

We collected technical and economic data over the March–April 2025 period from one small farm, that is, the same farm on which the agronomic data were collected. All the economic data were provided directly by the farmer.

The profitability of the saffron, expressed as economic profit (Appendix B), was obtained according to a methodology that had already been used in a previous study, as follows [23,24]:

• The value of the total output provided by the saffron included all the revenues from the crop. The quantity of produced saffron and its by-product (edible tepals) and their prices referred to the year 2024, (the year 2025 for the hourly wage cost of labor).
• The total production cost was considered as the sum of the direct costs related to saffron, the indirect costs (overheads, taxes, depreciation, insurance, and machine repairs), referring to the entire farm that had to be shared among the various production processes, and the implicit costs, referring to the farmer-owned inputs, e.g., family labor and/or machinery. The implicit costs were calculated (estimated) as opportunity costs, that is, “the income that would have been received if the input had been for its most profitable alternative use” [24].

The economic profit was calculated considering the traditional cultivation of saffron without the use of AMF at planting and considering the innovative technique, which involved the use of AMF at planting. The effects of AMF on the flower and stigma yields were assumed to be constant throughout the entire cultivation cycle. Profitability was measured as economic profit, that is, the difference between the total output value (reused products excluded) minus the value of the total cost of production obtained as the sum of the value of explicit costs and implicit costs. The implicit costs are not real costs, but instead represent the remuneration of the resouces owned by the enterpreneur (which, in our case study, refers to family labor and machinery) of the entrepreneur. They were calculated indirectly, applying the concept of opportunity cost.

A more detailed description of the methodology is given in Appendix A, while the definitions of economic profit and of the other economic parameters used in this work are given in Appendix B.

3. Results

The results of our study are presented hereafter, first considering the agronomic results and then the economic results.

3.1. Agronomic Results

Caser et al. (2019) [5] reported that inoculum, consisting of a mixture of R. intraradices and F. mosseae, markedly enhanced the number of flowers per m² (91.8 vs. 66.4 in the uninoculated controls, AMF−), the number of flowers per corm (5.1 vs. 3.9 in AMF−), and the saffron yield (645.3 vs. 477.2 mg/m² in AMF−).

3.2. Economic Results

Our case study referred to one small farm located in a mountainous area (Northwestern Italian Alps) with a surface area of 3 ha, of which an area of 1,000 m² was dedicated to saffron cultivation over a 5-year cycle. There were two labor units on the farm (only family members). They purchased corms from a specialized farm in Tuscany. The farm sold 50% of the saffron as dried stigmas directly on the farm or to local restaurants, while the other 50% was sold to a local herbalist for the production of a mixed tisane (mint, Melissa officinalis, and dried saffron stigmas). We hypothesized the profit from the tepals (dried and sold in packets for culinary use) since the producer currently does not make use of them, and they thus continue to be considered as waste. Moreover, the quantity of production (dried stigmas and tepals) for the first and second years in the cycle could be considered equal to 30% and 70%, respectively, of the total for the full number of production years.

In general, the economic profit of the agricultural processes considered here is not positive due to the valorization of the implicit costs (especially family labor). However, if we exclude the implicit costs, the overall profit (the accounting profit, that is, the difference between the value of the excluded total output reuse products minus the explicit costs of production) becomes positive. We chose economic profit because it represents the remuneration of the entrepreneurial activity, or in other words, the remuneration of the entrepreneur’s activity exclusively.

The value of the total output of saffron and its by-products, that is, tepals, are shown in

Table 1. Total output of saffron and its by-product (tepals), without AMF (full production year; open field; 5-year cycle; 1,000 m² and 1 ha; 2024).

Output	Quantity gr	Price EUR/gr	Total EUR/m2	Total EUR/ha	%
Dried stigmas	50	20	1,000	10,000	30.0
Dried stigmas for tisane	50	35	1,750	17,500	52.5
Dried tepals *	975	0.6	585	5,850	17.5
Total Output			3,335	33,350	100.0

* Hypothesized. Source: the authors’ own calculation.

and

Table 2. Total output from saffron and its by-product (tepals), with AMF (full-production year; open field; 5-year cycle; 1,000 m² and 1 ha; 2024).

Output	Quantity gr	Price EUR/gr	Total EUR/m2	Total €/ha	%
Dried stigmas	65.5	20	1,310	16,200	30.0
Dried stigmas for tisane	65.5	35	2,292	17,500	52.5
Dried tepals *	1275	0.6	765	7,650	17.5
Total Output			4,367	43,670	100.00

* Hypothesized. Source: the authors’ own calculation.

for both traditional and innovative cultivation techniques.

Table 3. Total output, costs, and economic profit of saffron and its by-product (tepals), without AMF (full-production year; open field; 5-year cycle; 1000 m² and 1 ha; 2024).

Total Output/Costs/Economic Profit	EUR/m2	EUR/ha	%	%	%
Total output	3,335	33,350	100.0
Direct costs
Annual planting cost	418	4,180	12.5	82.9	11.6
Land rent	13	130	0.4	2.6	0.4
Packaging for tisane	49	490	1.5	9.7	1.4
Packaging for tepals *	24	240	0.7	4.8	0.7
Total direct costs	504	5,040	15.1	100.0	14.0
Implicit costs
Intra-row weeding (family labor)	134	1,340	4.0	7.4	3.7
Inter-row weeding (family labor)	107	1,070	3.2	5.9	3.0
Harvesting (family labor)	422	4,220	12.7	23.4	11.7
Hilling (family labor)	845	8,450	25.3	46.9	23.5
Drying the stigmas (family labor)	45	450	1.3	2.5	1.3
Drying the tepals (family labor) *	45	450	1.3	2.5	1.3
Packaging the tisane (family labor)	178	1,780	5.3	9.9	4.9
Packaging the tepals (family labor) *	27	270	0.8	1.5	0.8
Total implicit costs	1,803	18,030	54.1	100.0	50.1
Indirect costs
Overheads	140	1,400	4.2	10.8	3.9
Depreciation, insurance, and repairs **	252	2,520	6.8	19.5	7.0
Machinery shelter rent	480	4,800	14.4	37.2	13.3
Taxes	10	100	0.3	0.8	0.3
Machinery interest	306	3,060	9.2	23.7	8.5
Operating costs	103	1.0	3.1	8.0	2.9
Total indirect costs	1,291	12,910	38.7	100.0	35.9
Total production costs	3,598	35,980	107.8		100.0
Economic profit	−263	−2,630	−7.8

* Hypothesized. ** Machinery. Source: the authors’ own calculation.

and

Table 4. Total output, costs, and economic profit of saffron and its by-product (tepals) with AMF (full-production year; open field; 5-year cycle; 1000 m² and 1 ha; 2024).

Total Output/Costs/Economic Profit	EUR/m2	EUR/ha	%	%	%
Total output	4,367	43,670	100.0
Direct costs
Annual planting cost	703	7,030	16.1	83.2	15.5
Land rent	13	130	0.3	1.5	0.3
Packaging for tisane	65	650	1.5	7.7	1.4
Packaging for tepals *	64	640	1.5	7.6	1.4
Total direct costs	845	8,450	19.3	100.0	18.7
Implicit costs
Intra-row weeding (family labor)	134	1,340	3.1	5.6	3.0
Inter-row weeding (family labor)	107	1,070	2.5	4.5	2.4
Harvesting (family labor)	591	5,910	13.5	24.7	13.1
Hilling (family labor)	1,181	11,810	27.0	49.4	26.1
Drying the stigmas (family labor)	58	580	1.3	2.4	1.3
Drying the tepals (family labor) *	58	580	1.3	2.4	1.3
Packaging the tisane (family labor)	233	2,330	5.3	9.8	5.1
Packaging the tepals (family labor) *	27	270	0.6	1.1	0.6
Total implicit costs	2,389	23,890	54.7	100.0	52.8
Indirect costs
Overheads	140	1,400	3.2	10.8	3.1
Depreciation, insurance, and repairs **	252	2,520	5.8	19.5	5.6
Machinery shelter rent	480	4,800	11.0	37.2	10.6
Taxes	10	100	0.2	0.8	0.2
Machinery interest	306	3,060	7.0	23.7	6.8
Operating costs	103	1,030	2.4	8.0	2.3
Total indirect costs	1,291	12,910	29.6	100.0	28.5
Total production costs	4,525	45,250	103.6		100.0
Economic profit	−158	−1,580	−3.6

* Hypothesized. ** Machinery. Source: the authors’ own calculation.

present the total output, the total costs and the economic profit of saffron for the traditional (without AMF) and innovative (with AMF) cultivations, respectively, for the full-production years (third, fourth, and fifth years), and referring to 1,000 m² (and also to 1 ha) for the year 2024, (the year 2025 for the hourly wage cost of labor).

The total planting cost is shown in

Table A1. Total planting cost of saffron without AMF (open field; 5-year cycle; 1000 m² and 1 ha; 2024).

Costs	Input		Total	Labor		Total	Total Cost	Total Cost	%
	kg, L, n.	EUR/kg, L, n.	EUR	h	€/h	EUR	EUR/m2	EUR/ha
Preparation of the land
Plowing				3	8.9	27	27	270	1.3
Manuring	200	2	400	2	8.9	18	418	4,180	20.0
Milling				1	8.9	9	9	90	0.4
Gasoline	5	6.2	30				30	300	1.4
Corms and planting	5,000	0.3	1,500	12	8.9	107	1,607	16,070	76.9
Total planting costs			1,930			160	2,091	20,910	100.0

Source: the authors’ own calculation.

and

Table A2. Total planting cost of saffron with AMF (open field; 5-year cycle; 1000 m² and 1 ha; 2024).

Costs	Input		Total	Labor		Total	Total Cost	Total Cost	%
	kg, L, n.	EUR/kg, L, n.	EUR	h	€/h	EUR	EUR/m2	EUR/ha
Preparation of the land
Plowing				3	8.9	27	27	270	0.8
Manuring	200	2	400	2	8.9	18	418	4,180	11.9
Milling				1	8.9	9	9	90	0.3
Gasoline	5	6.2	30				30	300	0.9
Corms and planting	5,000	0.3	1,500	12	8.9	107	1,607	16,070	45.7
Inoculum AMF	50	26	1,300	14	8.9	125	1,425	14,250	40.5
Total planting costs			3,231			285	3,516	35,160	100.0

Source: the authors’ own calculation.

, in Appendix A. Details on how the planting cost was calculated are presented in Appendix A for the traditional and innovative cultivation techniques.

We can observe that the economic profit is slightly negative for both the traditional cultivation and, albeit to a lesser extent, for the innovative cultivation, when AMF is included. This is an interesting result since the valorization of family labor and capital owned by the entrepreneur often leads to extremely negative economic profits in agriculture. Furthermore, the implicit costs, due to the (estimated) cost of family labor—especially for hilling, 25.3% and 27% for the two techniques, respectively—have the greatest impact on the total production cost (54% or more for the two cultivation techniques, respectively). It should also be noted that the incidence of the planting cost on the total cost of production rises from 12.5% (without AMF) to 16.1% (with AMF), essentially due to the cost of the used biostimulant. When considering the total output the contribution of the by-products (dried tepals for human food) to the increase in revenues and economic profit is also of interest. Tepals represented 17.5% of the total output, while the stigmas dried for tisane represented 52.5% for both the traditional and the innovative techniques.

Finally, the planting cost for the traditional technique depended to a great extent (77%) on the cost of the purchased corms, while the incidence of the purchased corms decreased by 45.5% for the innovative technique due to the high incidence of the AMF cost (40.5%) on the total production cost (Appendix A, Table A1 and Table A2).

Our results are not directly comparable with those of Macaluso et al. (2014) [13], as the methodology used to collect economic data are different. The parameters considered by these authors to assess profitability, that are, the total gross output (TGO) and the gross margin (GM) margin, which is the difference between the TGO and the variable costs of production (VCs) (Appendix B). However, it should be noted that saffron resulted in being the most profitable of the MAPs (rosemary, oregano, sage, lavender, other MAPs) studied by these authors, with more than 66,200 EUR/ha in terms of TGO and 57,600 EUR/ha in terms of GM. These authors also stressed that the purchase of bulbs had the higher incidence on VCs (50%). (Appendix B).

4. Discussion

4.1. Agronomic Aspects

The productivity and quality of saffron, as well as the dry matter accumulation in the daughter corms, are influenced by several agronomic variables. According to Kour et al. (2022) [25], and in line with other studies, such as those conducted by Rezvani-Moghaddam (2020) [26], these variables, which are ranked here by their importance, include corm size, water availability, temperature, planting density, mineral nutrition, pests, and diseases. Plant biostimulants, such as AMF [27], have attracted increasing interest, as they are considered a sustainable agricultural solution that contributes toward obtaining a more sustainable food system. AMF (subphylum Glomeromycotina) are obligate biotrophs that form mutualistic symbioses with most land plants, including major crops [28]. They enhance water and nutrient uptake, increase yield and secondary metabolite production, and improve tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Therefore, they can help plants cope with the effects of climate change, complement the use of agrochemicals, and reduce environmental impacts [29]. Several studies have shown that AMF biostimulants—such as, Rhizophagus intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae—can effectively improve both the yield and quality of C. sativus L. [5,12,30,31].

4.1.1. Corm Size

The size of the corms significantly affects the development of flowers and the daughter corms, both of which influence saffron production.

In a study by Treccarichi et al. (2022) [32], larger corms (>15 g) yielded up to 318 flowers/m², while smaller ones (<5 g) produced only 0 to 1 flower/m². The number of replacement corms was observed to be more than three times higher in large corms (4.6 corms/plant) than in small ones (1.4 corms/plant).

Moreover, the final weight of the main corm at harvest and stigma yield were significantly influenced not only by the corm size but also by the cultivation techniques.

These findings have been corroborated in other studies conducted in various cultivation areas. Gresta et al. (2008) [10], in a trial conducted in Enna (central Sicily), showed that the use of 4 cm diameter corms, combined with early planting, led to an increase in the number of flowers per m², a higher stigma yield, and greater daughter corm production. Similarly, Iqbal et al. (2012) [33], in Kashmir, observed that larger corms positively influenced both the flower yield and daughter corm production. Koocheki & Seyyedi (2015) [34] highlighted yet another aspect: corms > 8 g demonstrated more efficient nutrient use, particularly in nitrogen uptake and utilization.

Overall, these studies confirm that the use of large corms is a key agronomic strategy to maximize saffron yield. However, increasing the corm size also raises production costs, thus making a careful cost–benefit assessment necessary. In such a context, the use of AMF has emerged as a promising strategy to enhance both the yield and quality of daughter corms, thereby potentially improving future yields.

Positive effects were observed on the daughter corm production and quality of AMF-inoculated saffron plants. Under soilless conditions, plants inoculated with R. intraradices, either alone or in combination with F. mosseae, have shown an increased number of daughter corms, compared to uninoculated control plants, which produced daughter corms of similar weight but in lower numbers [12,35]. Caser et al. (2020) [35] reported a 1.7-fold increase for the combined inoculation (R. intraradices and F. mosseae), while Stelluti et al. (2023) [12] reported a 103% increase for R. intraradices alone. In addition, plants inoculated with R. intraradices and F. mosseae have been found to accumulate higher levels of sugars, proteins, and phenols in their daughter corms than in the untreated ones [31].

The yield and quality of daughter corms directly influence the subsequent saffron production, which is also affected by the type and concentration of the applied inoculants. Jami et al. [30], in agreement with Caser et al. (2019) [5], found that saffron plants grown on a research farm in Iran and inoculated with a mixture of R. intraradices, F. mosseae, R. irregularis, and Glomus caledonium—applied at 10 g (100–120 spores or infection units per gram of inoculum)—showed a 46% increase in yield in the second year of cultivation, compared to uninoculated plants.

4.1.2. Water Availability

Saffron has relatively low water requirements compared to other crops due to its good drought resistance and dormancy during the driest months (May–August). Additionally, its water demand coincides with autumn rains, which are essential for flower development [1], and those of the late winter–spring months (February to April) for daughter corm development. An increased leaf area index and increased temperatures in the final months of the crop cycle lead to higher evapotranspiration [36]. Consequently, traditional cultivation areas often forgo irrigation, as indicated by Giupponi et al. (2023) [6], who reported that 91% of Italian growers do not irrigate their saffron crops.

According to Sepaskhah & Kamgar-Haghighi (2008) [37], continuous irrigation is necessary in regions with less than 400 mm of seasonal rainfall. They considered irrigation at 75% of the potential evapotranspiration (ET) to be optimal in arid zones (200 mm), while 50% of ET was sufficient in semi-arid areas (400 mm). When rainfall reaches ~600 mm, only a pre-flowering irrigation of about 150 mm is needed to support emergence. Notably, targeted irrigation interventions can significantly boost productivity: irrigation in early September in Mediterranean environments can anticipate flowering, while treatments in late August can increase the stigma yield by 17% to 40% [38].

AMF have been shown to enhance plant water uptake and improve tolerance to drought and salinity, as demonstrated in such crops as wheat, maize, and tomato [39]. Thus, their application to saffron cultivation could help reduce irrigation needs and maintain productivity, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, while supporting sustainable agricultural practices.

4.1.3. Planting Density

Saffron is mostly planted by hand or with machinery that is commonly used for potato cultivation [1]. According to the guidelines of the “Zafferano Italiano” Association, soil preparation should involve light tillage, including plowing, refining, and leveling, followed by the formation of ridges for placement of the corms. Corms are planted between July 1 and September 15, at a density of 40 to 120 kg per 100 m², in continuous rows. The subsequent cultural practices include earthing-up and hoeing. In Italy, saffron is typically grown as an annual crop, unlike in other producing countries such as Iran, where cultivation can extend to ten consecutive years [1,40]). Temperini et al. (2009) [41] found, in a study in Alvito (Lazio), that the crop cycle duration and planting density of saffron significantly affected the yield in the Mediterranean region, thereby emphasizing the importance of appropriate agronomic management practices. Indeed, they found that a biennial cycle, with 111–119 corms/m², provided yields that were comparable with higher densities (up to 179 corms/m²), while it reduced the propagation costs and increased daughter corm production. The highest yield (15.2 kg/ha) was observed for a biennial cycle, which outperformed annual (7.2 kg/ha), triennial (11.3 kg/ha), and quadrennial (3.3 kg/ha) cycles. Moreover, the average flower number in the biennial and triennial cycles (≈370 flowers/m²) was 112% higher than in the annual cycle and 174% higher than in the quadrennial cycle. The dry weight of the stigmas was also greater in the one- and two-year cycles (7.1 mg) than in the three- and four-year cycles (5.7 mg).

Planting depth is another important agronomic factor, and it should range from 7.5 to 10 cm to 15–22 cm, depending on the soil texture and climate. Indeed, the chosen depth affects the daughter corm production: shallow planting tends to increase bud formation. A depth of around 15 cm is considered optimal in Italy [11].

4.1.4. Mineral Nutrition

Crocus sativus L. is considered to have low nutritional requirements; however, several studies have highlighted the role of fertilization in increasing the yield of dry stigmas and corms [37,38,39,40,41,42]. In Italy, nutrient losses are mainly compensated for with organic fertilizers of animal origin (e.g., cattle, sheep manure, or poultry litter), which are applied at 20–30 t/ha [10].

This fertilization approach has proved to be effective in several studies. According to Abbasi et al. (2022), 30 t/ha of cattle manure outperformed urea (120 kg N/ha) in the production of stigmas and corms by 21% and 19%, respectively; urea also led to the formation of surface crusts after irrigation [43].

Naseer et al. (2018) [44] showed that increasing manure fertilization, from 10 to 30 t/ha, improved the saffron flower yield by 6.20% and the corm yield by 4.59%. Additionally, raising the inorganic fertilizer levels (from 30 kg N, 20 kg P₂O₅, 15 kg K₂O to 90 kg N, 60 kg P₂O₅, 50 kg K₂O per hectare) resulted in a 5.50% increase in flower yield and a 19.80% increase in corm yield. The highest yields and profitability were achieved by combining 90 kg/ha N, 60 kg/ha P₂O₅, and 50 kg/ha K₂O with 10 t/ha of manure and 0.5 t/ha of vermicompost, which led to a 154.86% increase in flower yield and a 150% increase in corm production, compared to the control.

According to Hourani (2023) [45], foliar NPK fertilizers and nano-chelated iron (Fe) are also beneficial. They found that cattle manure alone (20 t/ha) increased the stigma dry weight by 100% and that nano-chelated Fe (10 kg/ha) boosted the dry stigma yield by 133%, the flower count by 93%, the replacement corm number by 102%, and their weight by 219%. The Dalfard 15^® foliar fertilizer (15% NPK + chelated micronutrients) increased the stigma yield by 200%, the flower number by 138%, the replacement corms by 142%, and their weight by 108%.

Other innovative methods involve biofertilizers, that is, fungi or bacteria which colonize the rhizosphere and enhance plant growth by increasing nutrient availability. AMF are recognized as natural biofertilizers and biostimulants, as they can enhance plant nutritional processes and contribute to improvements in various plant or rhizosphere characteristics, including nutrient use efficiency, tolerance to abiotic stress, quality traits, and availability of confined nutrients in the soil or rhizosphere [27,29]. Stelluti et al. (2023) [12] conducted a greenhouse study to test the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus R. intraradices and two Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacterial (PGPR) strains (Bacillus megaterium CB97032 for P solubilization and Paenibacillus durus CB1806 for N fixation). The combination of AMF (10 g inoculum per corm) and PGPR (applied via fertigation at three points in time) resulted in the best performance. The obtained results showed a 24% increase in corm weight, 19% in the total phenolic content, and 96% in the safranal content.

The inoculation of saffron with R. intraradices and F. mosseae has been shown to increase the accumulation of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), and iron (Fe) in corms during the later stages of growth [31]. Similarly, R. intraradices has been found to enhance the levels of some enzymatic cofactors involved in the biosynthesis of saffron apocarotenoids [46]. In addition, R. intraradices has been reported to modulate the apocarotenoid metabolism of saffron stigmas, thereby improving the sensory attributes of the spice [46].

Abdoshah et al. (2024) [47] conducted field trials with biofertilizers that contained Pseudomonas japonica (Fe/Zn-related), P. koreensis (S14), and P. vancouverensis (S19, K-related), applied at 0.5 L/ha in mid-February. They observed +250% in the flower number, +140% in the flowering duration, +220% in the stigma dry weight, and +20% in the flowering rate, compared to the control.

Despite the modest nutritional needs of saffron, the available literature has pointed out that fertilization management directly influences its yield and quality. An integrated approach that combines organic, mineral, and biological fertilizers offers a sustainable and effective solution, although it requires site-specific planning and consideration of crop longevity.

4.1.5. Biotic Adversities

A survey conducted among Italian saffron growers revealed that the most frequently encountered issue is the vole (Arvicola spp.), which was reported by 37% of the respondents. Low-impact environmental strategies can be adopted to control rodents and ungulates: the use of nets or bait, such as faba bean plants (Vicia faba L.), which are more attractive to rodents than the C. sativus L. plant. Other reported problems include the presence of fungi and bacteria (19%), snails (13%), and damage caused by such ungulates as deer and wild boar (10%). The remaining 11% of farmers mentioned occasional issues connected to moles, porcupines, hares, as well as agronomic problems like waterlogging or weed infestations. Nevertheless, only 1% of the respondents reported using plant protection products [6].

Corm rot is the primary global issue of saffron production, and the disease is classified as the “corm rot complex”. The pathogens that are most responsible for this disease are species of Fusarium spp., followed by Penicillium spp., Sclerotium rolfsii, and Rhizoctonia spp. In Italy, corms affected by the disease have been found to contain Penicillium cyclopium, F. oxysporum f. sp. gladioli, and the bacterium Burkholderia gladioli [48]. The disease symptoms in corms consist of small spots, surrounded by chlorotic halos, which gradually extend until the white surface becomes yellowish, and eventually turns into a dark, powdery mass. Yellowing, wilting, and withering of the shoots have been observed in the aerial part of the plant during the flowering period [48].

The main strategies adopted to reduce the incidence of corm rot are as follows [48]:

• The use of high-quality starting corms and avoiding self-production in areas where this issue already exists;
• Careful handling of the corms during harvest and storage to avoid wounds and damage;
• Adequate aeration during storage and transport, and avoiding piles to limit humidity;
• Crop rotation;
• The use of diagnostic tests based on DNA.

Good agronomic management, which plays a crucial role in activating plant defense mechanisms, directly influences the susceptibility of plants to pathogen attacks. Additionally, incorrect practices, such as the use of infected material and/or contaminated equipment, facilitate the spread of corm rot, which is also aided by natural factors such as water, soil, air, and fauna [49]. Chemical defense has been significantly limited in recent years, due to European Union restrictions; carbendazim, applied by immersing corms, was among the most frequently used active ingredients in the past, but its use has not been allowed since 2014 [50].

Biocontrol has emerged as an alternative or complementary strategy that also limits the onset of resistance. An interesting study on gladiolus corms (Gladiolus spp.), which are also susceptible to infection by F. oxysporum f. sp. gladioli, showed promising results with integrated treatments during storage. These treatments included immersion in hot water (55 °C for 30 min), exposure to UV-C rays (4.98 kJ/m² for 6.45 min), and treatment with essential oil vapors from Hyptis suaveolens (0.8 μL/cm³) [51].

Gupta et al. (2020) [52] found that certain biocontrol agents, such as Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Trichoderma asperellum, were effective in controlling saffron corm rot caused by F. oxysporum. They observed, in field trials, that the immersion of corms in a T. asperellum suspension reduced disease incidence by 77.84% in the first year and by 68.63% in the second year, and that similar results were achieved to those with carbendazim (82.77% and 48.24%).

AMF can enhance the tolerance of the host plant to various biotic stresses, including bacterial, fungal, viral, and nematode pathogens, as well as herbivores. The involved mechanisms include competition for nutrients, space, and host photosynthates, modification of the rhizosphere, and activation of the defense responses of the plant [53]. The inoculation of saffron with R. intraradices alone or combined with F. mosseae under soilless conditions has been found to reduce the incidence of fungal diseases by up to 87%, compared to the uninoculated controls [35]. In short, the progressive reduction in chemical active ingredients makes the adoption of sustainable and integrated strategies necessary. Biocontrol agents, combined with good agronomic practices, represent a valid alternative that is able to limit the incidence of pathogens, while simultaneously promoting productive parameters, such as germination and flowering [52].

C. sativus L. is also vulnerable to a wide range of weed species due to its slow growth. An excessive weed presence can lead to limited flowering or even plant death. Mechanical weed control, although the most effective and least environmentally impactful method, is also the costliest. Weed control interventions generally start in August. However, despite the growing demand for organic saffron, the use of chemical herbicides remains prevalent [11].

4.2. Economic Aspects

According to our results and those of a recent study [13], saffron cultivation is generally profitable and sustainable as a result of its low input requirements; no irrigation or plant protection were required in our case study. Moreover, the use of AMF, applied at planting in our study, showed a positive effect on the total output (revenues) and also on the economic profit (Appendix B). However, it should be remembered that the economic profit of saffron production is negatively affected by the high value of the implicit costs of family labor, which is not a real cost (Appendix B). Saffron requires a great deal of human labor, which normally involves family labor, for harvesting, hulling, and drying. Indeed, if the cost of family labor were not considered as usual in family-run farms, the profitability of saffron would be very high compared with other agricultural productions. Thus, it is necessary to study the costs and profits on a sample of farms of different sizes and in different locations (plain, hill, mountain) in Northwestern Italy to better understand the effects of the application of AMF on saffron profitability. Moreover, our results confirm that saffron is an interesting crop due to its high profitability, as other authors have recently indicated [13].

Although AMF inoculation offers several benefits for saffron cultivation, one of the main challenges of its use is the cost associated with its production and application. Since the initial application can represent an investment, the persistence of AMF in the soil can make them more cost-effective than other inputs. Indeed, acting as biofertilizers and biostimulants, they provide multiple advantages, including improved crop yield and quality, increased tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, long-term soil health maintenance, and complementary effects with fertilizers and pesticides.

However, conducting economic analyses is crucial for the widespread adoption of AMF inoculants. Their use can be particularly economical in areas that have a low soil nutrient content, such as phosphate-deficient soils, or in arid and semi-arid regions [10,29]. Furthermore, a careful selection of suitable host–niche–microbe combinations is essential to maximize their effectiveness [29].

The economic results presented herein, which refer to the year 2024, should be considered indicative of the profitability of saffron in Italian areas located in disadvantaged zones (marginal areas, such as in the hills or mountains). Indeed, looking ahead, the prices of inputs, the hourly cost of labor, and the interest rates used to calculate the opportunity cost of the entrepreneur’s own capital could be subject to changes that could be significant. Moreover, unfavourable climatic conditions, geopolitical crises and changes in economic policies, primarily in tariffs, could lead to increases in the price of raw materials, including those used in the production of biostimulants, with consequences for their widespread use. However, no certain indications or data are currently available on the effect of tariffs, in primis, on saffron.

Therefore, it is important to emphasize that our results are intended as a starting point for future investigation into whether and how AMF can affect crop profitability in similar cultivation areas to the one we have studied. Thus, we do not consider the results obtained in the present work to be generalizable, and further observations are necessary.

5. Conclusions

Saffron cultivation offers numerous advantages, from both an economic and an environmental perspective, thanks to its low input requirements, the possibility of being practiced on a small scale, and its reduced need for irrigation and agrochemicals. It generates employment opportunities, particularly in the harvesting and processing stages, although these stages are characterized by a certain degree of seasonality. Many studies have emphasized that MAPs, including saffron, are crops that are suitable for enhancing the value of marginal areas, and above all, hilly and mountainous regions. Indeed, they enable land that is often poor, abandoned or otherwise uncultivated, and small in size to be recovered. They allow farm income to be diversified and integrated, not only through their sale but also through activities that have become particularly widespread on farms that offer agritourism, such as training courses explaining how and for what purposes they can be used, and are therefore a source of development for rural tourism. Furthermore, there is an increasing use of bioactive compounds in the pharmaceutical and nutraceutical sectors, which also adds value to by-products and promotes circular production models. In addition, the high commercial value of the product, its spice in primis, should allow producers to achieve significant profit margins. Our case study has evidenced the positive effect of the use of AMF on the profitability (economic profit) of saffron. Obviously, our results are not generalizable and refer to a specific Italian area (mountainous). Therefore, they could be considered as a starting point, as the adoption of sustainable cultivation techniques (biostimulants were considered here as AMF) allows the economic results of saffron production to be enhanced. However, some challenges remain: the relatively high cost of corms and the competitiveness of the international market, which are further exacerbated by high labor costs in general. In order to strengthen its development, it is necessary to invest in the supply chain, especially by increasing cooperation among the operators (producers, processors, etc.), focusing on quality certifications, traceability, and territorial promotion, while also fostering synergies with rural tourism. Support for research and innovation is therefore crucial to consolidate the competitiveness of saffron, to improve the economic results and environmental sustainability, which could be achieved, inter alia, through the use of AMF, as proposed in this work, and to encourage the diversification of agricultural production.