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Review

Triticale in Mediterranean Cereal Farming: Opportunity or Reality?

by
Fernando Martínez-Moreno
1,*,
Irfan Özberk
2,
Fethiye Özberk
2 and
Ignacio Solís
1
1
ETSIA, Agronomy Department, University of Seville, Ctra. de Utrera km1, 41013 Seville, Spain
2
Department of Field Crops, University of Harran, 63300 Sanliurfa, Türkiye
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2175; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092175
Submission received: 23 July 2025 / Revised: 3 September 2025 / Accepted: 10 September 2025 / Published: 12 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilizing Genetic Resources for Agronomic Traits Improvement: Series III)
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Abstract

Triticale is a cereal that currently has a cultivated global area of approximately 3.8 Mha. It is widely used as a feed and forage crop. Although winter triticale cultivars are planted in Poland, Germany and Belarus (the main producers), a significant portion of their cultivation is carried out in the Mediterranean basin using spring cultivars. Spain and Türkiye are two examples of the success of this crop in terms of promotion, breeding, and expansion. Thus, in 2022/23, 280,000 hectares of triticale were planted in Spain, while 100,000 hectares were planted in Türkiye, ranking 5th and 8th in the world, respectively. Current triticale cultivars have high grain and/or forage yield. Furthermore, dual-purpose cultivars are available and can be intercropped with legumes, which increases their possibilities in the field. Triticale competes well with weeds and is resistant to many diseases. It performs well in acidic soils, and it is tolerant to drought, conditions common in the Mediterranean basin. In the future, funding for spring triticale breeding programs (which are scarce and declining) should be maintained, and projects to improve agronomic techniques and publicize the advantages of this crop could be implemented. Furthermore, the use of triticale for human food could expand in the region, especially in MENA countries.

1. Introduction

1.1. What Is Triticale?

Triticale (x Triticosecale Wittmack) is an amphiploid species that originated from crosses of wheat (normally durum or bread wheat, Triticum aestivum L. or T. turgidum L. ssp. durum (Desf.) Husn., respectively) and rye (Secale cereale L.). Triticale started as a mere scientific curiosity; its fertility problems were gradually corrected during the 20th century, especially with the use of colchicine, to make it a diploid-like species. The use of tetraploid wheat (such as durum wheat) to obtain hexaploid triticales (2n = 42) was another important step in the breeding of this crop, as was the creation of substituted triticales where one of the rye chromosomes was replaced by its wheat D-genome counterparts [1]. The work of E. Sánchez-Monge in Spain, J.G. O’Mara in the USA, A. Kiss in Hungary, and B.C. Jenkins and L.C. Evans in Canada were key to producing the first primary triticale, i.e., directly from the crosses of wheat and rye. A Canadian program was also directed at producing secondary triticale, i.e., crossing different triticale genotypes, which included hexaploid and octoploid materials. Soon after, other triticale breeding programs in Spain, Hungary, and Mexico (CIMMYT) followed the same path [2].

1.2. Importance of Triticale

Although the first triticale appeared in Germany in 1888, it only began to be used as a crop in 1969, when the Hungarian cultivars Triticale No. 57 and Triticale No. 64 (registered the previous year) were planted on approximately 40,000 ha. That year indeed deserves to be remembered, since the Canadian cultivar Rosner and the Spanish cultivar Cachirulo were also released [1]. Since then, the planting area of triticale has grown from almost nil to 4.2 Mha in 2015 and 3.8 Mha (million hectares) in 2022 [3]. In 2022, the global trade of triticale was ca. 300 million US$; Poland, France, and Germany were the leading exporters, and Germany and Spain were the main importers [4]. It is an important crop in former rye-producing countries, such as Poland, Belarus and Germany, where most rye intended for animal feed or forage has been replaced by triticale. However, there is also a significant amount of production in the Mediterranean Basin, where Spain and Türkiye stand out. In other Mediterranean countries, such as Portugal, Italy, Greece, Tunisia or Croatia, the planted areas are much smaller (Table 1). Most of the production is triticale grain for feed, as well as the whole plant for forage. Dual-purpose triticale (for both forage and grain) cultivars are also available. The grain is used to feed pigs, poultry and ruminants, such as cattle and sheep, whereas the forage triticale is intended only for ruminants [5].

1.3. Breeding of Triticale in Mediterranean Regions

Triticale, like other winter cereals (wheat, barley, oat, etc.), can be grown in Mediterranean climates with spring varieties (without vernalization requirements) sown in late fall and harvested in May or June. These regions typically have a Csa climate (mild wet winters and dry and hot summers), according to the Köppen–Geiger nomenclature [6]. However, for inland Mediterranean areas with colder winters, it is better to sow facultative or winter varieties (with vernalization requirements) with a longer growing season (from November–December to June–July). These areas have BSk (cold winters, arid climate), Cfa (fully humid, hot summer), and Cfb (temperate oceanic) climates.
For the adaptation of triticale to Mediterranean regions (with many areas having a temperate winter), understanding the evolution of the CIMMYT (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo) spring triticale breeding program is crucial. The idea for triticale breeding at this institution started after a visit by Dr. Norman Borlaug in 1958 to the breeding program at the University of Manitoba (Canada). In 1964, a joint project of both institutions was developed to obtain triticale cultivars competitive with other cereals. F. Zillinsky was the CIMMYT triticale breeder from 1968 to 1982. CIMMYT used its durum wheat cultivars to cross with rye cultivars to obtain a new source of hexaploid dwarf spring triticales insensitive to photoperiod. Some triticales with improved fertility gave rise to the cultivar Armadillo, released by 1970 in Mexico, the first one with acceptable yields. Armadillo was the product of a natural cross between a hexaploid triticale and an unidentified bread wheat. It was later found that in Armadillo there was a substitution of chromosome 2R by 2D. The International Triticale Yield Nursery (ITYN) was established in the 1969/70 season and distributed materials to 39 locations worldwide, representing a major commitment by CIMMYT to this crop. In 1973, lines derived from Armadillo (collectively called M2A) had already reached the yield of bread wheat controls [7]. By 1977, the yield gap between spring wheat and spring triticale had been closed, which was only 14 years after the first triticale cross was made in Mexico. Between 1975 and 2000, the global distribution of CIMMYT spring triticales through its international nurseries resulted in the release of 146 cultivars for commercial production in 23 countries, some of which were planted in the Mediterranean basin [1].
This article examines the agronomic potential and challenges of triticale as a crop in Mediterranean regions and explores its adaptability and ability to produce grain for animal feed and forage, with an emphasis on two countries where this crop is well established and with a high output level: Spain and Türkiye.

2. Triticale Assets

2.1. The Grain Yield of Triticale Is Greater Than That of Other Cereals

One of the main characteristics of triticale is its high yield compared with those of other cereals. At CIMMYT, maximum triticale yield trials revealed an increase of 1.5%/year in the 1980s and 1990s. The yield progress was mainly due to the increase in the harvest index, grains/m2, spikes/m2, and test weight, and the decrease in plant height [2]. Table 2 presents the results of some field trials in areas of the Mediterranean basin that compared the yield of several triticale cultivars with several wheat cultivars. Some trials include barley as well. These trials are not easy to conduct, and the results depend on several factors, such as the cultivars used, as some cultivars display higher yields than others. Nevertheless, the studies included in Table 2 present comparable results. In general, good triticale cultivars has a yield higher than their bread and durum wheat counterparts by approximately 6% and 17%, respectively. As for barley, triticale’s yield is approximately 10% also higher. The greater number of grains/m2 was the component that explains the greater yield of triticale than that of durum wheat in an experiment conducted in Sardinia (Italy) (almost 15% more). Authors concluded that the effect of ear fertility on yield (which is high in triticale) is greater than that of the tillering capacity [8]. In yield data from field trials conducted with fungicide (which is what is usually done) treatment in Andalusia (southern Spain) from 2017 to 2022 at four locations, the triticale average yield was 9.4% greater than that of barley, 7.5% greater than that of bread wheat, and 16.7% greater than that of durum wheat. In the trials untreated with fungicide, the yield gap slightly increased, to 12.5%, 5.7%, and 19.0% in barley, bread, and durum wheat, respectively [9]. In the sub-littoral area of Algeria, triticale outyielded bread wheat, barley and durum wheat by 6.6, 11.3 and 23.5%, respectively [10]. In an international field trial conducted in three countries in the Mediterranean basin (Spain, Lebanon and Tunisia), Villegas et al., (2010) [11] compared the yield of triticale and bread wheat, with triticale yield being 3.6% higher. In a 10-year field trial in Eastern Anatolia, Türkiye, triticale was shown to out-yield bread wheat, especially some cultivars such as Ümranhanım [12]. In summary, triticale yield when cultivated under a wide range of conditions in the Mediterranean region were slightly higher than bread wheat, and higher than barley and durum wheat.

2.2. Triticale Forage Yield and Quality Is Greater Than Those of Other Cereals

Triticale is a crop that develops a large amount of vegetative biomass in a short period (better than other winter cereals in acidic and sodic soils) and therefore has been used for forage in various contexts: livestock grazing, whole-plant silage (Figure 1), and hay. Reduced-awn cultivars are more suitable for forage, especially for grazing. Triticale can be planted as an annual ryegrass, winter/spring blend, or in combination with other cereals, legumes, or other crops. Blends provide the benefit of extending the grazing season and/or improving the nutritional content of the forage, especially when combined with legumes. According to research conducted worldwide, triticale forage production generally compares favorably to those of other small-grain forage cereals [13]. The possibility of dual-purpose (forage and grain) of some cultivars, the adaptation to semi-arid regions, and the favorable nutritional characteristics (which include a high concentration in calcium and potassium) are other positive assets of the forage triticale [14]. Research on triticale suitability as ruminant feed has generally shown that its nutritional qualities are comparable to those of other forage cereal crops [15]. Harvest for silage usually occurs between the boot and soft dough stages [16]. Triticale silage can be combined at a low inclusion rate with maize silage to increase the fiber content in dairy cows [17]. In addition, the feeding value of triticale grain was better than those of oat and barley and equal to that of wheat grain [18].
Regarding grain quality, the increase in plumpness of modern triticale has overcome the problem of shriveled kernels of the first cultivars [5]. In a study on the grain composition of eight winter triticale cultivars, starch content ranged from 60.8% to 67.6%, while that of bread wheat was around 65%. Protein content ranged from 11.8% to 15.2%, while that of bread wheat was around 12.4% [19]. Bread wheat endosperm is rich in gluten proteins (gliadins and glutenins), that determine the elasticity of and extensibility of the dough, which is crucial for bread making. However, triticale dough forms a weaker gluten, but has a varied amino acid profile [20]. Triticale grain has approximately 20% more protein than bread wheat does, with an average content of 3.4% for the amino acid lysine (the lysine content of bread wheat is lower, at approximately 3.0%) [21]. Lysine is a limiting essential amino acid in pig feed. The energy concentration of triticale is about 95–100% of that of maize or bread wheat for non-ruminants (pigs and poultry), and almost the same for ruminants. The digestibility of protein and amino acids is also similar to that of maize and bread wheat. Triticale is a relative soft grain whose hardness index is about half of the bread wheat and barley, and requires less energy for grinding, before mixing into a feed livestock [5]. One undesirable component of the triticale grain is the pentosans, that interfere with the digestion and absorption of several nutrients in poultry nutrition, resulting in sticky droppings. Triticale contains higher levels of pentosans than wheat, but lower than rye. The adition of feed enzymes (primarily xylanases) can overcome the effect of theses anti-nutritional components [22]. The average ash and lipid content of triticale grain was 1.9% and 2.2%, respectively, similar to that of bread wheat. Dietary fibre in the kernel ranged from 11.7 to 13.6%, of which around 80% are non starch polysaccharides, a figure slightly higher than bread wheat [19].

2.3. Triticale Cultivation Has Less Weed Growth

Triticale growers know that the crop has greater early vigor than wheat and rye because of its larger and more robust embryo (see Figure 2). This enables faster covering of the soil and partially prevents the growth of weeds [2,23]. Moreover, triticale has allelopathic properties, inherited from the rye parent, that have been verified under laboratory conditions. The BX units (several metabolites of the benzoxazinoid group) are responsible for most of the allelopathy, like the one possessed by the triticale cultivar Dinaro [24]. Allelopathy has not been seriously considered in plant breeding, since, for example, Dinaro (high allelopathy) still produces approximately half the biomass of blackgrass weed (Alopecurus myosuroides Huds.), when compared to that of a low-allelopathy wheat cultivar. In the field trials, the level of allelopathy in triticale was greater than that in wheat but lower than that in rye. Similarly, the BX content was the highest in rye, followed by triticale and wheat [25]. Intercropping triticale with other crops, such as pulses (e.g., vetch and lupin) reduces weed infestation and biomass, especially if they are planted in perpendicular directions. Triticale and pulses have complementary growth habits, with triticale growing and establishing more rapidly and being more aggressive in capturing minerals from the soil [26,27]. As with other traits, there are clear differences between cultivars. In one study, the winter cultivar from Poland ‘Borowik’ was more competitive against weed than ‘Trapero’ [28].

2.4. Triticale Is More Resistant to Pests and Diseases than Other Cereals

During its vegetative growth phase, triticale is much less attractive to rabbits and other rodents than other small-grain cereals are [29]. During the early years of its deployment as a crop, triticale displayed resistance to most important wheat and rye diseases, such as rusts, septoria, and powdery mildew, although it was not specifically bred to introduce resistance genes from wheat or rye. However, as the area of triticale cultivation expanded, this ‘honeymoon’ ended, and the pathogens causing those diseases adapted to triticale, causing varied levels of susceptibility, which were more pronounced due to the narrow genetic basis of most triticale cultivars [2]. Interestingly, a forma specialis (f. sp.) of powdery mildew infecting triticale was reported recently. This f. sp. showed a genetic mix between f. sp. tritici and secalis. The new pathogen emerged through a hybridization event between wheat and rye f. sp. Therefore, triticale itself drove hybrid speciation of a fungal pathogen [30].
Regarding rusts, some early triticale varieties were reported to carry the LrSatu and SrSatu genes (to leaf and stem rust, respectively), described in approximately 50% of lines in the 17th International Screening Nursery [31]. Other triticale cultivars carry R-genes from durum wheat, such as Sr9 and Sr36, that confer resistance to stem rust [32]. Triticale resistance can originate from wheat (like the two mentioned above) or rye (e.g., Yr9 to yellow rust). However, some rye R-genes were previously transferred to bread wheat and from there to triticale through relatively easy crossing of the two hexaploid species (e.g., the Sr27 and Sr31 genes) [33]. Crossing between bread wheat and triticale has resulted in the substitution of some R chromosome in triticale for the respective D chromosome in triticale (e.g., 2D and 6D) [34]. Some rust races (mainly wheat-infected clonal populations) adapted to triticale. The ‘Triticale aggressive’ yellow rust race appeared in Central Europe (Poland, Austria, etc.) in approximately 2016, and it was similar to those found in populations in the Middle East and Central Asia [35]. A race with combined virulence to Yr9, YrJ (present in Jackie triticale cv.), and YrT (present in Tobruk triticale cv.) caused severe yellow rust epiphytotic in most triticale cultivars in southeastern Australia from 2007 to 2010. Another incursion occurred in 2017 when a yellow rust race of the group PstS13 (also widespread in Europe, including Spain), infected many Australian triticale cultivars [36]. In 2024, a new race of leaf rust appeared in southern Spain, affecting several triticale cultivars.
In summary, triticale is susceptible to most wheat and rye diseases, but its severity is somewhat lower, though this largely depends on the cultivar. Currently, it is essential for triticale breeding programs to improve resistance and to introduce R-genes for the main triticale diseases and races, mainly to the three wheat rust species [37]. The aim of these objectives is to maintain triticale’s reputation as a disease-resistant cereal.

2.5. Triticale Is More Tolerant to Abiotic Stresses Than Other Cereals

As a derivative of rye, triticale was considered a winter hardy crop and is tolerant to many abiotic stresses. However, many rye genes are inhibited by unknown factors in the wheat parent genome. Therefore, most cold-hardy triticale cultivars inherit cold tolerance from their wheat parent [38]. For other traits, tolerance can be traced to both parents. According to data collected by the USDA Salinity Lab, the salinity tolerance of triticale is better than that of wheat. It seems that a high K+/Na+ ratio is important for salinity tolerance in triticale [39]. Triticale is also tolerant to acidic soils and to the presence of available aluminum in these soils [40]. Jessop [41] suggested that aluminum tolerance genes are located on chromosomes 3R, 4R, 5R and 4D. It seems that lower root cell plasma membrane lipid permeability and physiological malate and citrate exudation from the root tips are important mechanisms of tolerance [42,43]. Triticale has shown tolerance to Zn deficiency, which is a common problem in cereal plants grown in infertile and/or calcareous soils. The 1R and 7R chromosomes carry genes for Zn efficiency, which allows triticale to be more tolerant than both bread and durum wheat but less tolerant than rye is [44]. The earliness of most spring triticale cultivars also contributes to escaping terminal stresses, such as heat or drought, in Mediterranean climates. In a study in the semiarid region of Tunisia, triticale was superior to barley (for dual-purpose use) with respect to grain yield, milk feed unit value and straw production [45]. In general, under drought conditions in North Africa, triticale outyields most other cereals in terms of grain yield, and more in terms of biomass (for forage) [46,47]. Because the embryo is larger, it can be planted deeper, allowing the roots to better utilize the scarce soil moisture. Furthermore, triticale has a larger root system than other winter cereals do (except for rye), which allows it to explore the soil more effectively. This advantage is even greater in poor soils [48].

3. Triticale in Spain

The area devoted to triticale in Spain increased sharply between 1986 and 1989, when it reached 75,500 ha; however, from 1989 onward, there has been a subsidy from the European Union for the cultivation of durum wheat, and the planting area of this wheat has increased significantly, largely at the expense of triticale [29]. During 1990–2007, the Spanish area of triticale cultivation was between 35,000 and 50,000 ha, with annual production ranging from 50,000 to 150,000 t. As a rainfed crop grown in the Mediterranean climate, triticale yields depend on variable annual rainfall and range between 1.3 and 2.7 t/ha. Since 2008, the area has significantly increased, exceeding 100,000 ha in 2012 and 200,000 ha in 2015. In the 2022 season, the area reached an all-time high of 280,000 ha, with a production of just over 600,000 t (Figure 3).
Triticale is planted in two areas in Spain: one is in central Spain, in the southern subplateau within the Tagus River basin. The main province of this area is Toledo (the province with the highest national triticale planting area); the other provinces are Albacete, Ciudad Real, and Badajoz. The other planting area is in southern Spain, centered on the mid–lower Guadalquivir River basin. The main province in this area is Seville; the other provinces are Cadiz and Cordoba (data from 2022, Figure 4). In Badajoz and Seville, triticale is also planted in dehesa areas (pasture fields interspersed with holm oaks) for pig and sheep grazing, providing green forage or mature spikes [29].
The most important triticale cultivars of the four seasons from 1999 to 2022 are shown in Table 3. Trujillo and Misionero were the most important cultivars from the late 1980s to the early 2000s. Trujillo (Andalusian Research Center, 1987) is a spring triticale with a medium growing season, with high yield and high adaptability. However, it is susceptible to leaf rust. Misionero (Semillas Fitó, 1988) is a facultative cultivar with a medium growing season, and it is suitable for forage owing to its high biomass production [50].
With respect to triticale cultivars that are currently planted in Spain, winter and facultative varieties are planted in the central (and northern) zone (RGT Eleac, Amarillo 105, Trimour, etc.), while spring varieties are planted in the southern zone (Bondadoso, Valeroso, etc.). The main breeding companies are RAGT (with cultivars adapted to the northern and central zones) and Agrovegetal (with cultivars adapted to the southern zone and warm valleys of the central zone). RAGT is an international French breeding company that sells seed of cultivars of various field crops, including cereals. RGT Eleac is a winter triticale adapted to the central zone, with cold tolerance and resistance to leaf rust, yellow rust, and powdery mildew, whereas RGT Coplac is a facultative triticale with wide adaptability. It can be planted in the central zone at the end of the fall season, or even in January or February. It can also be planted in early sowing in the southern zone. Agrovegetal is a small Spanish breeding company organized by several cooperative’s farmers of western Andalusia that has an agreement with CIMMYT to take advanced spring lines (F5-F6). These are then tested in seven environments in southern Spain. The most important criteria are yield (in grain and forage), disease resistance (rusts, powdery mildew, septoria, etc.), drought and cold tolerance, and harvest quality. The result of this work has been the release of a series of cultivars, such as Bondadoso, the most widely planted cultivar in Spain from 2005 to 2023, with a short growing season, high yields of grain and silage, and resistance to diseases. A total of 41.5 million kg of certified seed of Bondadoso has been sold since its release in 2005. Valeroso (2013), Saleroso (2018), and Rumboso (2020) are more recent cultivars from this company [52].
Other breeders include Limagrain (e.g., Tasmania), Florimond Desprez (e.g., Trimour), Mas Seeds (e.g., Rivolt), KWS (e.g., Elicsir), Fitó (e.g., Misionero), Batlle (e.g., Forricale), plus the cultivars marketed by Disasem (e.g., Amarillo 105) and Agrusa (e.g., Alambic). In 2022, 26.1 million kg of certified seed of triticale were sold in Spain, meaning that approximately 50% of the sowing was performed with certified seed, which was significantly greater than that in 1999, when it was 36.4% (Table 4).

4. Triticale in Türkiye

Triticale production in Türkiye is quite recent (starting in 2004), with a cultivated area of approximately 25,000–30,000 ha between 2004 and 2011. The acreage increased to 35,400 ha in 2014 and 37,200 ha in 2016, and it exceeded 50,000 ha by 2018. In 2023, the area reached 110,200 ha (including 11,500 ha under irrigation), which produced 370,000 t [53]. Triticale yields were consistently high throughout the study period, averaging 3.2 t/ha (Figure 5). In Türkiye, triticale grain is mainly used for animal feed, as well as for forage or silage. Harvest for silage purposes is practiced at the dough stage of grain filling. The silage yield is generally greater than that of wheat, rye and oat, at approximately 30–35 t/ha [54]. Triticale flour is sometimes mixed with high-quality wheat flour to make pastries, biscuits, bread, eriste (local macaroni) and yufka (tortilla) [55]. In 2022, many provinces throughout Türkiye grew triticale; the main provinces (in decreasing order) were Çorum, Sivas, Kütahya, Çankırı, Denizli and Kırklareli (Figure 6). The three most important provinces are in the interior of Türkiye. These three provinces constitute more than 40% of national triticale production [53].
The cultivars with the highest seed sales in Türkiye in 2018–2023 are presented in Table 5. Tatlıcak-97, an important cultivar released by Bahri Dagdas International Research Institute in Konya in 1997, was selected from CIMMYT material. This cultivar and Mikham-2002 are also suitable for forage production [56]. There were 24 cultivars released by 2020 [53,57,58]. More than 15 cultivars were released by private companies. The triticale breeding program continues through public agricultural research institutes and some universities, such as Aegean, Süleyman Demirel and Dicle University. Since the 1980s, the Bahri Dagdas International Agricultural Research Institute, the Transitional Zone Agricultural Research Institute in Eskisehir and the Eastern Anatolian Agricultural Research Institute have been the leading institutes conducting studies on breeding, agronomy, grain quality and pest and disease resistance. In Türkiye, the seed used by farmers are largely certified because of government subsidies given to certified seed users. In 2022/23, approximately 35% of planted triticale seed in Türkiye were certified.

5. Can Triticale Expand in the Mediterranean Basin as It Has in Spain and Türkiye?

Triticale production in Mediterranean countries could increase, but its adoption faces several challenges, as it is summarized in Table 6 (pros and cons). The main factors that may affect triticale cultivation in the future are going to be addressed and explained below.

5.1. Market Development

Despite its advantages, triticale remains relatively underutilized in Mediterranean agriculture because of limited awareness of it among farmers, livestock growers, and consumers. Market development for triticale grain and forage has been limited, and promotional efforts to encourage its cultivation and provide information about its advantages (high grain and silage yield, high protein quality, biotic and abiotic stress resistance, possibility of regrowth after grazing, etc.) should be made. Other advantages include reduced water, fertilizer and phytosanitary requirements compared with other cereal crops, and high carbon sequestration potential that may help mitigate the effects of climate change. Another advantage of triticale is its greater uptake of nitrogen and phosphorus from contaminated water in dairies compared with other cereal crops. An obstacle for increased triticale cultivation is that it does not normally receive subsidies from governments and is not eligible for loans or insurance coverage [59].

5.2. The Success of Triticale in Spain and Türkiye

Spain and Türkiye have successfully integrated triticale into their cereal farming systems, which highlights its potential as a major crop in semiarid regions. In regions of Spain, such as Castilla-La Mancha and Andalusia, where water scarcity and poor soil quality have hindered traditional cereal production, triticale has outperformed wheat in both yield and economic return [9]. Through the regional Agricultural Research Centers, Extremadura and Castilla-La Mancha have extensively researched triticale yield, adaptability to the local climate, integration into livestock farming systems, and economic return, thereby promoting the use of this cereal [60]. Close contact (and information sharing) with CIMMYT’s spring triticale breeding program was also very important for selecting the genotypes best suited to the conditions of southern Spain. The private company Agrovegetal agreed with CIMMYT to annually test spring advanced lines in western Andalusia to select the best genotypes for each season (Figure 7). Unfortunately, CIMMYT’s triticale breeding program was closed in 2017. Furthermore, many private companies, especially French companies, such as RAGT, Limagrain, and Florimond Desprez, have shown interest in testing some of their triticale genotypes in Spain, particularly in Castilla-La Mancha, and selecting those that are well adapted. In Türkiye, after the closure of the CIMMYT triticale breeding program, international material transfer stopped gradually [61]. This might slow the release of new cultivars in Türkiye. Given that evidence for climate change in Türkiye is increasing, the area of triticale cultivation is expected to increase due to the better ability of this crop to adapt to marginal areas compared with that of other temperate cereals (Figure 8) [62].

5.3. Increasing Population and Meat Consumption in MENA Countries

The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is characterized by an arid Mediterranean climate. The population of this area is increasing (in 2023, the population is 508 million people; by 2035, the population is expected to be 581 million people) [63], as is the percentage of people living in cities; people who live in cities typically demand high-value products, such as meat and dairy products. Poultry is the most consumed meat, followed by beef and sheep. Meat consumption varies across the region, but it is generally higher in wealthier MENA countries. Meat per capita consumption is forecast to increase in the MENA region by 6.1%, from 24.2 kg/person per year in 2019–2021 to 25.7 kg/person per year in 2031 [64]. The use of adapted triticale cultivars with high yields (for both feed and forage) and greater economic returns for farmers may help fully integrate this crop into the MENA livestock industry. The same principles used in Spain and Türkiye should be applied: the government should collaborate with an international partner who carries out a spring triticale breeding program (as was done before with CIMMYT), and a national breeder (private or public) should receive advanced material (F5–F6) and should work with local farmers to conduct field trials (to select the best lines for yield, yield stability, resistance to diseases, etc.) in several locations and years. For winter triticale, a collection of cultivars from private companies from other countries should also be tested in field trials under the same conditions as those mentioned above. Public agricultural and regional research centers should try to connect the production sector with the livestock sector, promoting and marketing triticale cultivation among farmers through comparative trials and workshops, fostering seed distribution, and studying the benefits of triticale in animal feed [40].

5.4. Triticale for Food

In addition, there is the forgotten use of triticale as a grain for human consumption. The poor texture and filling of the grain, poor milling performance, lower flour yield, and grayish color of the flour initially inclined people to use the crop mainly as animal feed. However, there are ways to solve these problems, such as creating wheat–triticale grain blends to improve milling performance. Blending wheat and triticale grains at a 75:25 ratio prior to milling produces flour yields equal to those of wheat milled alone [65]. Additionally, compared with wheat, triticale grain stands out for its high amounts of fiber, vitamins, minerals (magnesium and zinc) and protein [66]. Triticale flour is a nutrient-rich option for human consumption that could complement wheat-based products in Mediterranean diets. Pasta, tortillas, and biscuits are the main food products that can be made with only triticale flour, but it can also be mixed with wheat flour [66]. This use of triticale should be considered in MENA countries because of their growing populations. However, it would be necessary to evaluate many current triticale cultivars to select the best in terms of food quality or to initiate a specific breeding program without losing the grain yield potential, which is one of the main assets of this crop. In any case, competition with low-quality and high-yield bread wheat cultivars will always be strong. In recent years, in Türkiye, triticale flour has frequently been used in the production of products such as pastries, biscuits, bread, cakes and pasta by mixing it with high-quality wheat flour [67].
In Mediterranean Europe, triticale could be used in gourmet or specialty products, such as bread, breakfast cereal (mixed with another cereal), biscuits or beer. However, again, marketing is needed to promote these products. Triticale flour, which has a low gluten content, can be used to make acceptable rye bread, since the gluten composition is not as important as the soluble proteins, the pentosans, and the proper starch. Owing to its high alpha-amylase activity and proteolytic activity, triticale brewing quality is good, producing a high malt extract, although the high nitrogen content of the wort makes triticale beer hazy and darker in color [65].

6. Conclusions

Triticale is a crop that could expand further in the Mediterranean Basin. Examples from Spain and Türkiye show that countries in northern Africa and southern Europe could benefit from increasing triticale acreage at the expense of other cereals, such as wheat or barley. Triticale has the ability to partially suppress weed growth, is resistant to most races of the main diseases affecting the crop, and has higher yield compared to other cereals, and many cultivars are dual-purpose (forage and grain). This may result in environmental benefits (less pesticide treatment) and economic viability for this crop. Its cultivation is hindered by the strong competition with high-yield feed bread wheat cultivars, new races of diseases specialized against a crop with a still narrow genetic base, reduced funding resources for breeding and agronomic techniques, a relative lack of knowledge of the crop among some agents in the feed chain, and the difficulty of introducing it into the human food chain due to its characteristics. Continued work will be required to further breed and develop this crop, involving informing intermediaries involved in the feed and food chain about the benefits of triticale.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.M.-M.; methodology, F.M.-M.; software, I.S.; validation, I.S., I.Ö. and F.Ö.; formal analysis, I.S.; investigation, F.M.-M.; resources, I.S.; data curation, I.Ö.; writing—original draft preparation, F.M.-M.; writing—review and editing, F.M.-M. and I.Ö.; visualization, F.Ö.; supervision, I.S.; project administration, F.M.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments

The authors want to acknowledge Karim Ammar (CIMMYT) for having inspired the writing of this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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Agronomy 15 02175 g001
Figure 1. Triticale silage of cultivar Bondadoso at Pozoblanco (Cordoba, Spain) during 2019.
Figure 1. Triticale silage of cultivar Bondadoso at Pozoblanco (Cordoba, Spain) during 2019.
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Figure 2. Triticale plots (the two in front on the left) vs. durum wheat plots (the two in front on the right) in a field trial in Ecija (Spain). Note the greater vigor of triticale plants.
Figure 2. Triticale plots (the two in front on the left) vs. durum wheat plots (the two in front on the right) in a field trial in Ecija (Spain). Note the greater vigor of triticale plants.
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Figure 3. Area and production of triticale in Spain (1990–2023). Data from MAPA [49].
Figure 3. Area and production of triticale in Spain (1990–2023). Data from MAPA [49].
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Figure 4. The most important triticale-cultivating provinces in Spain in 2015 and 2022. Data from MAPA [38]. The main triticale-cultivating province is underlined.
Figure 4. The most important triticale-cultivating provinces in Spain in 2015 and 2022. Data from MAPA [38]. The main triticale-cultivating province is underlined.
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Figure 5. Area and production of triticale in Türkiye (2004–2023).
Figure 5. Area and production of triticale in Türkiye (2004–2023).
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Figure 6. Map of Türkiye with the provinces with greater triticale production in 2015 and 2022. Data from TUIK [53]. The main triticale cultivating province is underlined.
Figure 6. Map of Türkiye with the provinces with greater triticale production in 2015 and 2022. Data from TUIK [53]. The main triticale cultivating province is underlined.
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Figure 7. Triticale breeding trial in southern Spain.
Figure 7. Triticale breeding trial in southern Spain.
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Figure 8. Triticale regional yield trial (Erzurum, Türkiye; courtesy of Dr. Kuckozdemir).
Figure 8. Triticale regional yield trial (Erzurum, Türkiye; courtesy of Dr. Kuckozdemir).
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Table 1. The main countries cultivating triticale (area and production) in four seasons (2000, 2008, 2015, and 2022).
Table 1. The main countries cultivating triticale (area and production) in four seasons (2000, 2008, 2015, and 2022).
RankSeason/CountryArea/Prod. *Season/CountryArea/Prod.Season/CountryArea/Prod.Season/CountryArea/Prod.
2000/01 2008/09 2015/16 2022/23
1Poland695/1901Poland1334/4460Poland1516/5339Poland1233/5440
2Germany499/2800Belarus458/1819Belarus508/1929Belarus406/1193
3Australia361/764Germany399/2381Germany402/,2598France340/1614
4France244/1260France343/1822France343/1866Germany324/1930
5China108/365Australia323/363Russia245/565Spain280/635
6Belarus99/312China246/412Spain216/450China200/386
7Hungary83/236Hungary131/503China196/352Russia109/307
8Lithuania51/131Lithuania98/311Hungary127/502Türkiye100/320
9Denmark51/244Brazil76/185Lithuania122/469Lithuania63/205
10Sweden41/185Czechia58/256Australia82/143Australia62/117
11Spain37/95Spain54/136Romania76/265Romania57/192
12Czechia37/138Sweden49/274Austria54/284Hungary55/186
13Canada36/90Austria46/251Czechia43/203Austria52/293
14Austria28/135Denmark36/185Sweden42/244Czechia41/208
15Portugal24/40Romania32/101Türkiye37/125Brazil37/128
16UK16/96Serbia32/126Tunisia25/31Canada30/61
17Switzerl.10/64Türkiye27/94Portugal23/38Sweden29/163
18Slovakia9/19Portugal20/42Chile23/129Serbia22/97
19Belgium9/56Chile19/93Serbia20/80Portugal15/18
20Netherl.7/36UK17/81Brazil18/40Chile15/81
Area/Prod.2467/90343889/12,1214270/16,3483617/14,158
* Data from FAOSTAT [3] are ordered by area. The area values are in kha (thousand ha), and production is in kt (thousand tons).
Table 2. Triticale yield (kg/ha) compared with wheat and barley in different field trials experiments.
Table 2. Triticale yield (kg/ha) compared with wheat and barley in different field trials experiments.
ReferenceLocationPeriodTriticaleWheat% Over WheatBarley
Motzo et al. (2015) [8]Sardinia (Italy)1995–201264045574 (D) 1-/14.9(D)-
Solís (2024) [9]Andalusia (Spain)2017–202259495534 (B)/5097 (D)7.5(B)/16.7(D)5435
Solís (2024) [9] 2Andalusia (Spain)2017–202254075116 (B)/4545 (D)5.7(B)/19.0(D)4806
Benbelkacem (2004) [10]Sub-littoral (Algeria)1992–199538723633 (B)/3134 (D)6.6(B)/23.5(D)3265
Villegas et al. (2010) [11]Spain, Lebanon, Tunisia200743404190 (B)3.6(B)/--
Kucukozdemir et al. (2020) [12]Erzurum (Türkiye)2006–20153880 33647 (B)6.4(B)/--
1 (B) is bread wheat and (D) durum wheat. 2 Trials without fungicide treatment. 3 The triticale cultivar Melez 2001 was excluded from the average due to its very low yield.
Table 3. The most certified triticale seed cultivars used in Spain in four seasons of 1999–2022.
Table 3. The most certified triticale seed cultivars used in Spain in four seasons of 1999–2022.
RankCultivarSeed 1CultivarSeedCultivarSeedCultivarSeed
1999/2000 2009/10 2015/16 2022/23
1Trujillo505Trujillo1139Bondadoso1924Bondadoso4601
2Misionero288Senatrit599Amarillo 1051675RGT Eleac2074
3Senatrit268Bienvenu536Trujillo1190RGT Coplac1575
4Tritano166Misionero533Trimour949Saleroso1484
5Tentudia121Trimour320Misionero830LG Relámpago1405
6Noe120Collegial313Bellac822Valeroso1365
7Activo77Bondadoso282Senatrit688Tasmania1138
8Triján67Amarillo 105222Orval666Trimour1119
9Camarma62Bellac212Renovac587Vivacio1079
10Abaco60Titania112Alambic564Rivolt880
Total 1841 4720 13,898 26,114
National area
(kha)		 28.1 61.0 215.6 280.3
Certified seed use (%) 36.4 2 43.0 35.8 51.8
1 Certified seed in kkg (thousand kg) and the area in kha (thousand ha) [51]. 2 Considering a seeding rate of 180 kg/ha.
Table 4. Triticale cultivars (15) with the highest sales of certified seed in Spain from 2018–2023.
Table 4. Triticale cultivars (15) with the highest sales of certified seed in Spain from 2018–2023.
CultivarAmount of Seed 1Breeding CompanyHabit
Bondadoso4.59Agrovegetal (Spain)Spring
RGT Eleac2.04RAGT (France)Winter
Amarillo 1051.65Dr. Saatzucht-Disasem (Germany)Winter
Trimour1.49Florimond Desprez (France)Winter
Tasmania1.42Limagrain (France)Facultative
Valeroso1.29Agrovegetal (Spain)Spring
Vivacio0.92Florimond Desprez (France)Facultative
Alambic0.87Agrusa (Spain)Facultative
RGT Coplac0.87RAGT (France)Facultative
Saleroso0.80Agrovegetal (Spain)Spring
Imperioso0.79Agrovegetal (Spain)Spring
LG Relámpago0.67Limagrain (France)Spring
Senatrit0.54Limagrain (France)Spring
Rivolt0.54Mas Seeds (France)Facultative
Elicsir0.53KWS (Germany)Winter
Total25.9
1 Amount of seed in million kg per season (average of six seasons). Data from MAPA [51].
Table 5. Triticale cultivars (15) with the highest sales of certified seed in Türkiye from 2018–2023.
Table 5. Triticale cultivars (15) with the highest sales of certified seed in Türkiye from 2018–2023.
CultivarAmount of Seed 1Breeding Company/Research InstituteHabit
Karma 20002.58Transitional Zone Agricultural Research Institute, EskisehirWinter-facultative
Tatlıcak 971.22Bahri Dagdas International Agricultural Research Institute, KonyaWinter
Vardem1.17Olgunlar Turizm Tarım Enerji Üretim Tic.Paz.Lmd.ŞtiSpring
Ümranhanım0.86Eastern Anatolian Agricultural Research Institute, ErzurumWinter
Truva0.45Trakya Tarım Vet.Tic.Lmd.ŞtiFacultative
Bc Goran0.22BC Institut Tarım Ürünleri Oto San. Ve Tic.Lmd.ŞtiFacultative
Ocenia0.20Tekcan Tohumculuk Gıda ve Tarım Ürün. San.Tic.Lmd.ŞtiFac.-spring
Kinerit0.18OSM Tohumculuk San. Tic.Lmd.ŞtiWinter
Ayşehanım0.17Doğu Akdeniz Geçit Kuşağı Araştırma Enst. Müd./KahramanmaraşFacultative
Özer0.14Bahri Dagdas International Agricultural Research Institute, KonyaFacultative
Respekt0.10Tarar Un ve Gıda San.Tic.Lmd.ŞtiFac.-winter
Sarp0.08Transitional Zone Agricultural Research Institute, EskisehirWinter
Nt074030.07Büke Tarım ve Hayvancılık Ithalat. İhracat ve Tic. Lmd.ŞtiWinter
Oflaz 420.07Merter Tarım market, AnkaraWinter
Total7.74 2
1 Amount of seed in million kg per season (average of six seasons) [53,57,58]. 2 Including other small-scale seed producers.
Table 6. Pros and cons of triticale cultivation in the Mediterranean basin.
Table 6. Pros and cons of triticale cultivation in the Mediterranean basin.
ProsCons
High grain yieldStrong competition with spring feed bread wheat cultivars, and to a lesser extent with barley
High forage yieldReduced funding resources for breeding and agronomic techniques
Good dual-purpose cultivarsLimited demand and market infrastructure
Tolerance to many abiotic stresses (drought, acidic soils, etc.)Market limitation for human food
Good weed competence
Good resistance to diseases
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Martínez-Moreno, F.; Özberk, I.; Özberk, F.; Solís, I. Triticale in Mediterranean Cereal Farming: Opportunity or Reality? Agronomy 2025, 15, 2175. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092175

AMA Style

Martínez-Moreno F, Özberk I, Özberk F, Solís I. Triticale in Mediterranean Cereal Farming: Opportunity or Reality? Agronomy. 2025; 15(9):2175. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092175

Chicago/Turabian Style

Martínez-Moreno, Fernando, Irfan Özberk, Fethiye Özberk, and Ignacio Solís. 2025. "Triticale in Mediterranean Cereal Farming: Opportunity or Reality?" Agronomy 15, no. 9: 2175. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092175

APA Style

Martínez-Moreno, F., Özberk, I., Özberk, F., & Solís, I. (2025). Triticale in Mediterranean Cereal Farming: Opportunity or Reality? Agronomy, 15(9), 2175. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092175

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