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Article

Occurrence of Insect Pests and Natural Enemies in Korean Cnidium officinale Cultivation—A Survey

by
Chung Ryul Jung
1,†,
Jae-In Oh
2,
June-Hyeok Jeong
3,
Ji-Young Lee
2,
Sang-Yoon Kim
4,
Young-Gwang Song
2,
Tae Hyoep Kim
5,
Yonghwan Park
6,† and
Bong-Kyu Byun
2,*
1
Special Forest Resources Division, Forest Bioresources Department, National Institute of Forest Science, Suwon 16631, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Biological Science and Biotechnology, Hannam University, Daejon 344430, Republic of Korea
3
The Science Museum of Natural Enemies, Geochang 50147, Republic of Korea
4
Department of Agricultural Convergence Technology, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea
5
Jin Myoung Farming Association Corporation, Jeongseon 26142, Republic of Korea
6
Forest Entomology and Pathology Division, National Institute of Forest Science, Seoul 02455, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 918; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040918
Submission received: 17 March 2025 / Revised: 4 April 2025 / Accepted: 4 April 2025 / Published: 8 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)
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Simple Summary

Cnidium officinale Makino is an important medicinal plant in Korea, and its dried roots are used for medicinal purposes. During cultivation, it is often attacked by various pests, for which information is scarce. In this study, we surveyed the pests that are attacking this plant and their natural enemies as potential biological control agents at two main cultivation sites.

Abstract

This study aims to construct essential information on the pests attacking Cnidium officinale Makino, which is one of the most important medicinal plants in Korea and neighboring countries. Based on the current survey, a total of 12 species were identified, including three above-ground pests attacking flowers, leaves, and stems, as well as ten soil pests attacking roots. In the vertical distribution of damaged roots, the dominant species is bulb mite (Rhizoglyphus robini) followed by onion maggot (Delia antiqua). Based on this study and the previous literature, the total number of species of pests reported to attack C. officinale is 36, including 3 on flowers, 16 on leaves, 6 on stems, and 11 on roots. We also investigated and compiled a list of natural enemies based on all available information and the current study, totaling 14 species. Parasitus sp., Macrocheles glaber, and Smicroplectrus sp. were identified as candidate natural enemies of root pests.

1. Introduction

The perennial herb plant Cnidium officinale Makino (COM), known as “Cheon-gung” in Korea and belonging to the family Umbelliferae, originates from China and has been cultivated for a long time in China, Japan, and Korea [1,2]. It is believed that this crop was introduced to Japan from China during the Edo period, and the plant cultivated in Korea is thought to have been transplanted from Japan, although the exact timing of its introduction remains unclear [3]. The dried roots of COM are used as herbal agents to treat pain, inflammation, menstrual disorders, and conditions related to vitamin deficiency, in addition to acting as a hypotensive agent. Additionally, its pharmacological properties against tumor metastasis and angiogenesis have been documented [4,5].
According to recent reports, the annual domestic production of COM in Korea was 953 metric tons in 2023, ranking ninth among cultivated medicinal crops [6]. This demonstrates the continued economic importance of this medicinal plant in Korea and neighboring countries. From 2012 to 2016, the annual export value of COM dried root in China reached RMB 31.18 million, ranking eighth in the average export value of a single medicinal material [7]. Korean growers believe it is more profitable than vegetable crops; however, due to summer depression in low-altitude areas as a northern species, cultivation is challenging, leading to a reduction in viable cultivation regions [8]. Continuous cropping is difficult, and even when attempted, profitability is low, prompting farmers to relocate cultivation sites annually. In some cases, the damage to COM in Korea is very severe at lower latitudes.
Currently, as the utilization of medicinal crops expands beyond traditional medicinal use to include healthy functional foods and cosmetic products, there is a push to increase cultivation. However, the implementation of the Positive List System (PLS) since 2019, along with pest management information, a lack of control agents, and rising input costs, has further complicated cultivation challenges.
So far, reported above-ground pests of COM include one species of butterfly, Papilio machaon; several moth species, such as Sitochora verticalis, Endoclyta excrescens, and Epinotia majorana; one species of true bug, Graphosoma rubrolineatum; two species of weevils, Lixus divaricatus and Scepticus griseus; and six species of thrips, Thrips tabaci, T. nigropilosus, Frankliniella occidentalis, F. intonsa, Scirtothrips dorsalis, and Anaphothrips obscurus. There are also two species of mites, Tetranychus urticae and T. kanzawai, and Rhizoglyphus sp. is the only reported underground pest [9,10]. Root pests are particularly problematic due to their ecological characteristics, which make early detection and control difficult, significantly impacting farmers’ incomes.
Previous studies have reported various insect pests affecting COM, including species from Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Hemiptera [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]. These pests damage different plant parts, such as flowers, leaves, stems, and roots. However, the available information has been scattered and is often region-specific. To address this, we compiled a unified pest checklist based on both the literature and our own field survey. This list serves as a baseline for understanding pest dynamics in COM cultivation and is presented in the “Result” part of this study.
This study aims to investigate COM pests in Korea and their natural enemies to provide the fundamental data necessary for implementing biological control agents.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Pest Monitoring and Insect Collection

To investigate the major pests and damage levels occurring in COM cultivation, surveys were conducted at 15 cultivation sites, including one site in Jeongseon-gun, five sites in Taebaek-si, and nine sites in Yeongyang-gun, during the period of high pest activity from May to October in 2023 (Table 1)
In Jeongseon-gun, surveys were conducted once a month from May to October, totaling six times. In Yeongyang-gun, a survey was conducted once in August, and in Taebaek-si, once each in July and September, using visual inspection, sweeping, and bucket traps for collection (Figure 1).
At the cultivation sites, insects flying or resting during the day were collected using an insect net and vials or 50 mL plastic tubes (Falcon® 50 mL Conical Tubes, Corning Incorporated, Glendale, AZ, USA). At night, a blacklight trap (Blacklight, TL-8 W, Philips Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea) was set up outside the cultivation sites from 19:00 to 04:00.

2.2. Investigation of Soil Arthropods near COM Cultivation Sites

To investigate soil-dwelling pests, 400 mL of soil was collected from the vicinity of the cultivation site. The samples were then placed in a soil invertebrate extractor (Berlese-Tullgren Funnel, SL15010 Portable Soil Animal Extractor, Shinill Science, Inc., Paju, Republic of Korea) for 24 h, after which, the pests that fell to the bottom were collected.
These soil samples were collected every month from three distinct sections of the cultivation site: the upper, middle, and lower slope positions. These positions were selected to reflect potential differences resulting from differing soil conditions along the gentle slope.
To identify soil pests in the cultivation sites in Taebaek-si and Yeongyang-gun, five root samples were randomly selected from withered plants at each site. This was carried out at nine sites in Yeongyang-gun and five sites in Taebaek-si. The list of pests collected from each region was analyzed and organized by area.

2.3. Damage Identification and Collection of Soil Insects

Roots of individuals exhibiting wilting symptoms on their above-ground parts were removed from the cultivation area and brought to the laboratory to investigate the pests affecting each part based on division into three sections (Figure 2B).
The upper 20% of the root was designated as “shallow,” the middle 40% as “medium”, and the lower 40% as “deep”. Specifically, “shallow” corresponds to 0–2 cm from the surface, “medium” to 2–6 cm, and “deep” to 6–10 cm. The roots collected from each section were placed in a soil animal extractor and maintained for 24 h, after which, the insects that fell to the bottom were collected and preserved in 70% ethanol (Samchun Pure Chemical Co., Ltd., Pyeongtaek, Republic of Korea).

2.4. Sample Collection and Species Identification

Samples collected from field traps and damaged roots were prepared as dried specimens or preserved in 70% ethanol for taxonomic identification. The identification was based on external morphology features. Species that were difficult to identify based on external morphology were identified through genital dissection. Genital dissections followed the method of Holloway et al. [11]. The list of identified species is organized according to the Checklist of Insects from Korea [12]. In addition, DNA barcodes were extracted and used for identification, when necessary. Genomic DNA required for species identification was extracted using DNeasy Blood and Tissue Kits (#69504, QIAGEN GmbH, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany). Genetic amplification for Lepidoptera was performed according to the conditions set by the CCDB (Canadian Centre for DNA Barcoding, “https://ccdb.ca (accessed on 16 August 2023)”, while for Diptera, the manufacturer’s protocol for the PCR Pre-Mix was followed. The details of the primers used for mite amplification are as follows: forward primer LepF1 (5′-ATTCAACCAATCATAAAGATATTGG-3′) and reverse primer LepR1 (5′-TAAACTTCTGGATGTCCAAAAAATCA-3′, [13]. For flies, the forward primer forward primer LCO1490 (5′-GGTCAACAAATCATAAAGATAGG-3′) and reverse primer HCO2198 (5′-TAAACTTCAGGGTGACCAAAAAATCA-3′, [14] were used. PCR was performed by SolGent (Daejeon, Republic of Korea). For mites, an initial denaturation step at 95 °C for 2.5 min was followed by 35 amplification cycles. The amplification process included a denaturation step at 95 °C for 40 s, a primer annealing step at 50 °C for 40 s, and an extension step at 72 °C for 40 s. A final extension step was carried out at 72 °C for an additional 10 min [15]. For flies, the initial denaturation step was also at 95 °C for 2 min, followed by 35 amplification cycles. The amplification process included a denaturation step at 95 °C for 20 s, a primer annealing step at 45 °C for 40 s, and an extension step at 72 °C for 40 s. A final extension step was carried out at 72 °C for an additional 5 min. Electrophoresis of the PCR products was performed using 1% agarose gel, and they were stained with EcoDye™ DNA Staining Solution (SolGent, Daejeon, Republic of Korea).

3. Results

3.1. Information on Taxa Captured Using Blacklight Traps

A blacklight was used to investigate pests near the COM cultivation site. From June to September, a total of 262 insect species and 1949 individuals were captured near the cultivation sites, corresponding to 26 species and 43 individuals in June, 130 species and 538 individuals in July, 102 species and 1239 individuals in August, and 53 species and 129 individuals in September. Overall, the order Lepidoptera was dominant, followed by Coleoptera and Hemiptera (Table 2). Within these, three pest species of COM were found, including S. verticalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and Xanthorhoe saturata (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), which are known to damage the above-ground parts of COM (Supplementary Table S1). Additionally, a sweeping survey confirmed the presence of 8 species in June, 10 species in July, 9 species in August, and 2 species in September, and a checklist was compiled. (Supplementary Tables S2 and S3). These materials serve as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners interested in pest identification and management in COM cultivation.

3.2. List of Pest Species Found in Cultivation Areas

A total of 12 pest species were identified through observation, sweeping, and root inspection (Table 3; Supplementary Figure S1). The pests attacking the leaves included S. verticalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and Xanthorhoe saturata (Lepidoptera: Geometridae). The pest damaging the stems was E. majorana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Five species of flies were investigated as root pests: Anthomyia illocata, Atherigona orientalis, Delia antiqua, D. platura, and Fannia spinosa (Diptera: Calypratae). Additionally, two species of soldier flies were recorded: Microchrysa shanghaiensis (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) and Stratiomyidae sp. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Notably, this survey confirmed the occurrence of Euxesta notata, F. spinosa, and M. shanghaiensis in the cultivation areas for the first time in Korea (Table 4 and Table 5). The occurrence of R. robini and Sitona lineatus was also confirmed.
In the Jeongseon-gun cultivation area and surrounding soil, no pests were found. However, in the Taebaek-si cultivation area, three pests—R. robini, E. majorana, and D. antiqua—were discovered on roots. Furthermore, in the Yeongyang-gun area, in addition to the three species found in the Taebaek-si cultivation area, eight additional pest species were identified, including A. illocata, A. orientalis, D. platura, E. notata, and F. spinosa. The species R. robini, D. antiqua, and E. majorana were found in both Taebaek-si and Yeongyang-gun. The differences in pest distribution between Taebaek-si and Yeongyang-gun may be influenced by several environmental and agronomic factors. Soil composition plays a crucial role in habitat suitability for soil-dwelling pests, particularly for R. robini and D. antiqua, which thrive in soils with higher organic matter and moisture contents. Moisture levels may also contribute to the observed distribution patterns. Yeongyang-gun, where a higher density of root-feeding pests was recorded, experiences higher soil moisture levels than Taebaek-si. Increased moisture can promote root rot, creating favorable conditions for pests that exploit decaying plant material, such as F. spinosa and Euxesta notata. Additionally, temperature variations between the two regions may affect pest development and survival rates. Warmer temperatures in Yeongyang-gun could accelerate the life cycle of dipteran pests like Delia spp., leading to comparatively higher population densities than observed under the cooler conditions in Taebaek-si. The differences in the vertical distribution of soil-dwelling pests observed across sites appear to be influenced by multiple ecological and agronomic factors. In particular, soil characteristics such as organic matter content and moisture-holding capacity are known to affect pest abundance and stratification, especially for species such as R. robini and D. antiqua, which prefer moist, decomposing substrates [16,17,18].
Differences in cultivation practices may also contribute to regional variability. The use of organic fertilizers or compost may further influence soil pest communities by attracting certain insect species. Future studies incorporating soil physicochemical analyses, microclimate monitoring, and pest population dynamics over multiple seasons would provide deeper insights into these regional variations and contribute to more effective pest management strategies in COM cultivation.
The larvae of S. verticalis spin threads to bundle leaves, living inside while feeding on the surrounding foliage. They are easily identified when they collectively damage leaves, leaving only the epidermis behind [1]. X. saturata is reported to occur twice a year [19], but information about this species remains limited. E. majorana is a significant pest of the family Umbelliferae, affecting East Asian hogweed (Heracleum moellendorffii), Korean angelica (Angelica gigas), and Dahurian angelica (A. dahurica) by causing damage to stems, flower stalks, and flowers. Its population peaks during the summer season of July and August [20]. This survey was conducted between June and October, overlapping with the period of increased occurrence. Regarding root-feeding pests, A. orientalis is invasive in Korea and was first discovered as a fruit pest in greenhouse-grown tomatoes in 2016 [21]. This pest is found in the fruits of affected plants and grows in feces or dead insects, indicating its polyphagous nature [22,23]. A. illocata has been reported in Korea as a sanitary and necrophagous insect [24,25], while M. shanghaiensis, belonging to the family Empididae (Diptera) was first found in crops. The species D. antiqua and D. platura damage the bulbs of Liliaceae crops such as garlic, onion, and scallions while also penetrating the stems of pumpkins [26,27]. In Korea, D. antiqua is known to have three generations per year [28,29,30]. These flies are believed to be attracted to the smell of immature compost used in early spring for soil fertility improvement and growth promotion, where they lay eggs and inhabit the treated area. Following the rainy season, increased moisture in the soil likely contributes to root rot, leading to its proliferation.
Two species of bulb mites, R. robini and R. echinopus, are distributed in Korea [31,32], both of which have been reported to cause damage to garlic [33,34]. Although the bulb mite was first reported under the scientific name R. robini in 2000, the lack of proper documentation of its nomenclature has caused confusion [1,35]. In this study, the collected bulb mites were molecularly identified and confirmed as R. robini (Table 4).
A recent checklist of insects in Korea contains two species of the genus Scepticus: S. griseus and S. uniformis [12]. S. griseus was first reported in 1988 as a pest in COM fields on Ulleung Island, East Sea, where larvae cut the fine roots and subsequently fed on the main roots from the outside. It has also been reported to damage COM and Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort (Umbelliferae family) in inland areas [36]. In Japan, this species is commonly found in volcanic ash areas and is known to damage vegetables and field crops, including peanuts. In Korea, damage to peanut fields was observed as early as 1982 [36,37,38]. This is the second report of damage to COM caused by S. uniformis.
Stratiomyidae sp., within the family Stratiomyidae, is believed to feed on organic matter from decaying roots rather than act as a pest.

3.3. Distribution of Soil Pests by Soil Depth

Bulb mites were found to be distributed regardless of soil depth in two regions (Taebaek-si and Yeongyang-gun) (Table 5). In the Taebaek-si cultivation area, they were primarily found in the “shallow” layer close to the surface, while in the Yeongyang-gun cultivation area, they were more prevalent in the “medium” layer. Regarding vertical occurrence, Delia antiqua was found across all three soil depths, similar to Rhizoglyphus robini in terms of overall depth range. However, the distribution pattern differed by region: more individuals were found in deeper soil layers in Taebaek-si, whereas the species was much more abundant in the middle soil layer in Yeongyang-gun.
Three species of flies (A. illocata, D. platura, and A. orientalis) were confirmed to mainly inhabit the “shallow” layer near the surface. Notably, E. notata was predominantly found in the “deep” layer [17] when the abundance of soil mites at four different depths was investigated in no-till and conventional tillage fields, with no significant difference in the vertical distribution of mites found between the two tillage systems, where most mites were in the topsoil (0–5 cm). Only one species, Tyrophagus similis, from the Astigmata suborder, was found in the topsoil of conventional tillage plots, while Mesostigmata mites were present at 0–5 cm, and Prostigmata mites were found below 5 cm. A bimodal distribution was observed in [16], where the distribution of mites was noted to be interrelated with root biomass and soil moisture, with the highest abundance in the 0–5 cm layer. In addition, [39] reported that T. similis mostly inhabited the 0–5 cm depth layer in greenhouse-grown spinach.
Although bulb mites belong to the same genus as T. similis, their ecology differs. In terms of vertical distribution, bulb mites are closely related to host plants and are reported to inhabit 0–40 cm soil layers in spinach cultivation greenhouses [40]. In contrast, T. similis shows no correlation with host plants regarding vertical distribution and inhabits a thinner layer than bulb mites, which may be attributed to differences in feeding preferences—bulb mites prefer tubers, while T. similis prefers organic matter on or in the soil.
There are currently no data on how deep COM roots grow in cultivated fields, but in one study, it was estimated to be around 20 cm from the surface. In this study, a depth of 10 cm was considered “deep” but could be classified as “shallow” compared to 40 cm for spinach, which appears to be adequate for bulb mites to proliferate. Therefore, it is recommended to apply control measures for bulb mites at a depth of 10 cm. Regarding flies, the optimal oviposition site for D. antiqua is reported to be 1 mm in diameter and 4 mm deep. Such spaces often occur at the soil–stem junction of actual and surrogate onions, but the vertical distribution of eggs in fields should be further investigated [41].
The population density was significantly higher and more evenly distributed in the cultivation areas of Yeongyang-gun compared to those of Taebaek-si. During root sampling, the extent of damage to roots in Yeongyang-gun was severe, which is presumably due to root rot and decay. Meanwhile, it was noted that the spread of damage by Delia spp. larvae varies depending on the plant age and crop type, and in broccoli (B. oleracea), damage caused by Delia spp. can kill plants, delay growth, or result in substandard products [42].
The genus Euxesta includes about 90 species, most of which are restricted to the Americas, except for a few species that have become widely distributed due to accidental introduction. Many species are saprophytic, and there is evidence that some species can be major pests of living plants, but the biological characteristics of this genus remain poorly understood [43]. E. notata is known to occur in Canada and the United States, where the larvae feed on decaying plant matter, and it is also distributed in Austria, Slovenia, and Switzerland [44,45].
The genus Fannia has over 300 species distributed worldwide, with larvae that are saprophagous and primarily feed on various organic materials such as decaying organic matter [46,47,48]. Many species act as “surface scrapers,” feeding on microorganisms present on the surfaces of substrates, including fungal hyphae and spores, algal cells, and pollen [49]. Considering these biological characteristics, it is inferred that F. spinosa also damages decaying COM root tissues. Further investigation appears necessary regarding E. notata and F. spinosa occurrence in the tubers of other crops and ornamental plants. Additionally, E. majorana pupae were found in the roots (Table 5). As mentioned earlier, E. majorana is generally known to damage stems. However, in this study, it was confirmed in the roots, indicating a need for further investigation to determine whether this finding is temporary or if it has been overlooked in the past.

3.4. List of Insect Pests Attacking COM

Based on the reports and studies reviewed to date, a list of the pest species damaging various parts has been compiled (Table 6). The pests affecting the flowers include three species: G. rubrolinneatum, Orthops scutellatus, and T. tabaci. For the leaves, there are 16 species, including aphids and thrips.
Six species are known to damage the stems, while ten species are identified as root pests. In [10], the occurrence of six thrips species is reported, including T. nigropilosus, S. dorsalis, and A. obscurus, during investigations of thrips in COM and L. chuanxiong, with F. intonsa and F. occidentalis showing the highest distribution rates. However, investigations performed in 2020 and 2022 in the main production areas of Korea (14 cultivation sites across eight cities and counties) indicated that T. nigropilosus and T. tabaci were the dominant species [52], with discrepancies believed to be due to differences in the surveyed regions and the number of cultivation sites. Lee et al. [53] mentioned the nationwide distribution of T. nigropilosus as a pest for A. gigas and COM but with relatively minor economic importance. However, based on the results from the main production area survey, it seems appropriate to consider water celery thrips economically significant.
Dipterans and root mites are presumably linked with root rot or decay, which is economically significant. It was also reported in one study that the ecology of root mites and Caloglyphus sp. is strongly associated with Fusarium fungi, noting that more mites were attracted to Fusarium-damaged chives (Allium chinense) than to healthy ones [54]. Additionally, root mites have been found to be strongly attracted to the metabolic products of Fusarium fungi and to alcohol extracted from fungal cultures [55]. The large number of root mites found in COM roots also indicates a direct correlation with root decay.

3.5. List of Natural Enemies

We surveyed potential natural enemies for use in the biological control of COM pests. In the Jeongseon-gun cultivation area of Gangwon Province, one species (Parasitus sp.) was identified, while three species (M. glaber; Parasitus sp.; Smicroplectrus sp.) were found in the Taebaek-si cultivation area. In the Yeongyang-gun cultivation area of Gyeongsangbuk-do, two species (M. glaber and Parasitus sp.) were confirmed (Table 7; Supplementary Figure S2).
Parasitus sp. was present in all three regions, while M. glaber was found only in Taebaek-si and Yeongyang-gun. The highest number of captures was recorded for Parasitus sp., followed by M. glaber.
In terms of vertical distribution, Parasitus sp. showed an overall even distribution, although different patterns were observed depending on the region. In Jeongseon-gun and Yeongyang-gun, it was primarily found in the “shallow” layer, while in Taebaek-si, it was more prevalent in the “medium” layer. M. glaber also exhibited varying distribution trends based on the region (Table 7). The insect species surveyed in Table 7, collected from COM fields, are known for their ecological roles as predators or parasitoids [56,57,58,59,60,61,62]. Based on our findings, we propose that these species have potential as biological control agents against pests of COM.

4. Discussion

In the Jeongseon-gun cultivation area and surrounding soil, no pests were found. However, in the Taebaek-si cultivation area, three pests—R. robini, E. majorana, and D. antiqua—were discovered on roots. Furthermore, in the Yeongyang-gun area, in addition to the three species found in the Taebaek-si cultivation area, eight more pest species were identified. Bulb mites were found distributed regardless of soil depth in two regions (Taebaek-si and Yeongyang-gun) (Table 5). In the Taebaek-si cultivation area, they were primarily found in the “shallow” layer close to the surface, while they were more prevalent in the “medium” layer in the Yeongyang-gun cultivation area. Based on reports and the literature reviewed to date, we compiled a list of pest species damaging various parts (Table 6).
We surveyed potential natural enemies for use in the biological control of COM pests. Regarding these potential natural enemies, members of the family Parasitidae are widely distributed and consist of free-living mites primarily found in soils with high organic matter content. P. bituberosus and P. fimetorum have been reported as biological control agents against dipterans and the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne javanica) [63,64,65]. In this investigation, a large number of specimens were collected, but precise species identification is lacking. The collected specimens will be accurately identified based on various types of information. The Macrochelidae family represents one of the most abundant and diverse predatory mites, often found in feces or decaying animal matter [66]. M. glaber is distributed worldwide and has been reared using various dipterans, such as Lucilia sp., houseflies (Musca domestica), M. vetustissima, and buffalo flies (Haematobia irritans exigua) [67,68,69]. It is also known to prey on soil nematodes, ticks, flea flies, and mushroom flies (Coboldia fuscipes) [62].
One study aimed to explore biological control agents for R. robini, which damages lily bulbs, by selecting nine potential natural enemies, including Hypoaspis aculeifer, for feeding, oviposition, development, and rearing experiments [51]. Of these nine selected species, H. aculeifer demonstrated superior performance in all experiments, while P. fimetorum was only successful in feeding, oviposition, and development. However, differences were observed in rearing based on origin: individuals from Taiwan succeeded, while those from Japan did not. Despite providing sufficient food mites to Taiwanese and Japanese strains of M. glaber and M. nataliae [51], the latter perished from starvation and did not succeed. These discrepancies are speculated to arise from differences in specificity between host plants, root mites, and natural enemies. The study also reported the predatory parasitoid Smicroplectrus sp. on the leaf miner Nematus lucidus (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae), which infests Crataegus sp. [70]. Although there have been no studies on the predatory ability of this parasitoid in Korea, it is deemed to have significant future potential as a biological control agent.
We also compiled a list of natural enemies based on all available information and the current study, featuring 14 species (Table 8, Supplementary Figure S2). Although we did not directly investigate the conditions for natural enemy establishment in this study, previous research suggests that predatory mites such as Macrocheles glaber and Parasitus spp. thrive in soils rich in organic matter and moderate moisture, conditions often found in decomposing organic substrates [57,60]. In addition, reduced tillage and limited pesticide use can support the survival of parasitoids such as Smicroplectrus spp. by preserving soil structure and host availability [59]. These findings indicate that soil management practices promoting microhabitat stability may enhance the role of natural enemies in pest suppression. This comprehensive checklist provides a foundation for developing environmentally sustainable pest management practices, minimizing reliance on chemical pesticides, and improving the health and productivity of COM cultivation systems. Future research should focus on conducting field trials to evaluate the effectiveness of these natural enemies under diverse environmental conditions.

5. Conclusions

The results of this study provide essential baseline data on the pests affecting COM and their natural enemies, with implications for biological control. Our findings confirm the presence of key pests, including D. antiqua and R. robini, and we identified potential natural enemies such as Parasitus sp. and M. glaber. They can contribute to developing sustainable pest management strategies by highlighting pest distribution patterns and natural enemy interactions. Our findings suggest that monitoring the vertical distribution of root-feeding pests and their natural enemies can support more targeted and effective control strategies in COM cultivation. Practices such as adjusting soil treatment depth, avoiding excess organic matter input, and applying control measures during peak pest emergence may enhance the efficiency of management.
Future studies should focus on field trials to validate the effectiveness of these biological control agents.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agronomy15040918/s1, Table S1: Checklist of insect species captured using a bucket light traps in around vegetation from three Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites in 2023; Table S2: Summary of insect species caught sweeping in around vegetation at three Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites in 2023; Table S3: Checklist of insect species captured by using sweeping in around vegetation at three Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites in 2023; Figure S1: Insect pests collected from damaged parts in Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites; Figure S2: Natural enemy candidates for insect pests attacking Cnidium officinale Makino.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.R.J., Y.P., and B.-K.B.; methodology, C.R.J., Y.P., and B.-K.B.; formal analysis, J.-H.J.; investigation, B.-K.B., J.-I.O., S.-Y.K. and T.H.K., and J.-H.J.; data curation, J.-Y.L., and Y.-G.S.; writing—original draft preparation, C.R.J. and B.-K.B.; writing—review and editing, C.R.J. and B.-K.B.; supervision, B.-K.B.; project administration, Y.P.; funding acquisition, Y.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Korea Forest Service, Republic of Korea, “Forest Science and Technology Development” (Project No. FE0300-2023-01).

Data Availability Statement

All data generated or analyzed during this study were collected by the authors of this publication.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Sang Jae, Suh, and Kyeong-Yeoll, Lee, Kyungpook National University, Korea, for fly and mite species identification.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Tae Hyoep Kim was employed by the company Jin Myoung Farming Association Corporation and has no potential conflict of interest. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

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Agronomy 15 00918 g001
Figure 1. Survey locations for pest monitoring in Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation areas (JS: Jeongseon-gun; TB: Taebaek-si; YY: Yeongyang-gun).
Figure 1. Survey locations for pest monitoring in Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation areas (JS: Jeongseon-gun; TB: Taebaek-si; YY: Yeongyang-gun).
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Agronomy 15 00918 g002
Figure 2. (A) Field view of a damaged cultivation area with wilting symptoms (marked with red rectangle). (B) The soil depth corresponding to damaged Cnidium officinale Makino roots divided into three sections: the top 20% of roots are “shallow”, the middle 40% are “medium”, and the bottom 40% are “deep”. “Shallow” is 0–2 cm, “medium” is 2–6 cm, and “deep” is 6–10 cm from the surface.
Figure 2. (A) Field view of a damaged cultivation area with wilting symptoms (marked with red rectangle). (B) The soil depth corresponding to damaged Cnidium officinale Makino roots divided into three sections: the top 20% of roots are “shallow”, the middle 40% are “medium”, and the bottom 40% are “deep”. “Shallow” is 0–2 cm, “medium” is 2–6 cm, and “deep” is 6–10 cm from the surface.
Agronomy 15 00918 g002
Table 1. Survey timeline and location of Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites in 2023.
Table 1. Survey timeline and location of Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites in 2023.
LocalitySurvey FrequencySurvey PeriodCultivation SiteSurvey Method
Jeongseon-gun,
Gangwon-do Province		Monthly
(May–October)		18–19 MaySindong-eup, Bangje-ri 80Visual inspection
Sweeping
Bucket light trap
9–10 June
12–13 July
11–12 August
6–7 September
12–13 October
Taebaek-si
Gangwon-do Province		July and September12–13 JulyGeumcheon-dong 171-20
Changjuk-dong 9-56
Changjuk-dong 9-135
Changjuk-dong 9-410
Tong-dong 238-1		Visual inspection
Sweeping
Bucket light trap
6–7 September
Yeongyang-gun,
Gyeongsangbuk-do Province		August17–18 AugustSubi-myeon Ogi-ri 545-2
Subi-myeon Ogi-ri 236-1
Subi-myeon Balli-ri 37
Subi-myeon Balli-ri 134-1(1) Subi-myeon Balli-ri 134-1(2)
Irwol-myeon Ori-ri 212-1
Cheonggi-myeon Togu-ri 226
Cheonggi-myeon Togok-ri 453-2
Cheonggi-myeon Jeongjok-ri 445		Visual inspection
Sweeping
Bucket light trap
Table 2. Species caught using bucket light traps distributed near vegetation within three Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites in 2023.
Table 2. Species caught using bucket light traps distributed near vegetation within three Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites in 2023.
TaxonomyJuneJulyAugustSeptember
Lepidoptera19 species115 species77 species43 species
28 individuals455 individuals337 individuals118 individuals
Trichoptera2 species-1 species1 species
9 individuals1 individual1 individual
Hemiptera2 species2 species3 species2 species
2 individuals2 individuals8 individuals2 individuals
Phasmida-1 species--
2 individuals
Coleoptera2 species10 species8 species3 species
3 individuals77 individuals16 individuals4 individuals
Orthoptera--1 species1 species
1 individual1 individual
Hymenoptera1 species-3 species-
1 individual7 individuals
Odonata---1 species
1 individual
Diptera-2 species2 species1 species
2 individuals4 individuals1 individual
Neuroptera--2 species1 species
2 individuals1 individual
Ephemeroptera--2 species-
863 individuals
Total26 species130 species100 species53 species
43 individuals538 individuals1239 individuals129 individuals
Table 3. Checklist of the damaged Cnidium officinale Makino parts from which insect pests were collected from three cultivation sites.
Table 3. Checklist of the damaged Cnidium officinale Makino parts from which insect pests were collected from three cultivation sites.
Damaged PartsFamilyScientific Name
LeafCrambidaeSitochroa verticalis (Linnaeus, 1758)
GeometridaeXanthorhoe saturata (Guenée, 1858)
StemTortricidaeEpinotia majorana (Caradja, 1916)
RootAnthomyiidaeAnthomyia illocata (Walker, 1856)
MuscidaeAtherigona orientalis (Schiner, 1868)
AnthomyiidaeD. antiqua (Meigen, 1826)
D. platura (Meigen, 1826)
UlidiidaeEuxesta notata (Wiedemann, 1830)
FanniidaeFannia spinosa (Karl, 1928)
StratiomyidaeMicrochrysa shanghaiensis (Ouchi, 1940)
AcaridaeRhizoglyphus robini (Claparede, 1869)
StratiomyidaeStratiomyidae sp.
Total12 species
Table 4. The molecular species identification of mites and flies collected from three Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites.
Table 4. The molecular species identification of mites and flies collected from three Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites.
Specimen No.FamilySpeciesNo. DNA% IdentityHighest Similarity
1Acaridae Rhizoglyphus robiniHNU_DNA_784799.22MG414254.1
2ParasitidaeParasitus sp.HNU_DNA_786486.41MK270528.1
3Macrochelidae Macrocheles glabeHNU_DNA_813994.16MN351659.1
4AnthomyiidaeAnthomyia illocataHNU_DNA_790199.85JN604566.1
5AnthomyiidaeD. platuraHNU_DNA_7898100.0KY837755.1
6MuscidaeAtherigona orientalisHNU_DNA_7899100.0OQ727251.1
7 “HNU_DNA_787599.85KR262636.1
8 “HNU_DNA_790399.39KM497286.1
9 “HNU_DNA_7883100.0OR050905.1
Table 5. Vertical distribution of mite and fly species emerging on roots according to soil depth at Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites.
Table 5. Vertical distribution of mite and fly species emerging on roots according to soil depth at Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites.
LocalityFamilySpeciesNo. of Species According to Soil DepthTotal *
Shallow
(0–2 cm)		Medium
(2–6 cm)		Deep
(6–10 cm)
Jeongseon-gun------
Taebaek-siAcaridaeRhizoglyphus robini773891391001
AnthomyiidaeD. antiqua201012
TortricidaeEpinotia majorana3003
Yeongyang-gunAcaridaeRhizoglyphus robini2514642213
AnthomyiidaeD. antiqua9626689451
D. platura1001
AnthomyiidaeEpinotia majorana4015
UlidiidaeEuxesta notata621725
AnthomyiidaeAnthomyia illocata40125
MuscidaeAtherigona orientalis2024
FanniidaeFannia spinosa2024
* The total number of species emerging from the five roots collected from one cultivation site in Jeongseon-gun, five cultivation sites in Taebaek-si, and nine cultivation sites in Yeongyang-gun. Chi-square test demonstrates a significant difference in the vertical distribution of pest individuals across soil depths (χ2 = 203.7, df = 2, p < 0.0001), indicating that pest occurrence was not randomly distributed but strongly concentrated in the shallow layer (0–2 cm).
Table 6. Checklist of damaged parts and insect pests attacking Cnidium officinale Makino. Pest species associated with Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation: records from the literature and this study.
Table 6. Checklist of damaged parts and insect pests attacking Cnidium officinale Makino. Pest species associated with Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation: records from the literature and this study.
OrderFamilySpeciesDamaged PartEmerging PeriodReferences
ColeopteraMordellidaeMordella brachyuraLeafJune–September[50]
CurculionidaeScepticus griseusRoot-[36]
Scepticus uniformisRootApril–August[35], This study
Lixus impressiventrisStemApril–September[50]
Lixus divaricatusStemLate June[9]
DipteraAnthomyiidaeAnthomyia illocataRootAugustThis study
Atherigona orientalisRootAugustThis study
Delia antiquaRootMay–JuneThis study
Delia platuraRootAugustThis study
Euxesta notataRootAugustThis study
FanniidaeFannia spinosaRootAugustThis study
StratiomyidaeMicrochrysa shanghaiensisRootAugustThis study
HemipteraAphididaeAphis spiraecolaLeafMay–June
August–September		[50]
Cavariella salicicolaStemMay–June[35]
Myzus persicaeLeafApril–May
September–October		[50]
Semiaphis heracleiLeafJune–July[50]
CicadellidaeLimotettix flavopictaStemAugust[50]
LygaeidaeNysius plebejusLeafJune–September[50]
PentatomidaeGraphosoma rubrolinneatumFlowerJune–September[51]
TingidaeCorythucha marmorataLeafJune–September[50]
MiridaeOrthops scutellatusFlowerFlowering[50]
LepidopteraCrambidaePatania ruralisLeafJune–July[50]
CrambidaeSitochroa verticalisLeafJune–July[9,35]
GeometridaeXanthorhoe saturataLeafJune–September[1], This study
HepialidaeEndoclyta excrescensStemAugust–October(ATRI, 1994)
NoctuidaeMacdunnoughia confusaLeafJune–July[50]
PapilionidaePapilio machaonLeafApril–September[9]
PyralidaeLamoria zelleriRoot-This study
TortricidaeEpinotia majoranaRootJuly–AugustThis study
StemJuly–August[9], This study
SarcoptiformesAcaridaeRhizoglyphus robiniRootApril, July, and September[35], This study
ThysanopteraThripidaeFrankliniella occidentalisLeafJune–September[50]
Thrips tabaciFlowerMarch–September[35,51]
Thrips palmiLeafJune–September[50]
Thrips nigropilosusLeafJuly–September[8]
TronbidiformesTetranychidaeTetranychus urticaeLeafAugust–September[9]
Tetranychus kanzawaiLeafJuly–August[9]
Note: “Previously reported” indicates species recorded in the prior literature on COM cultivation in Korea. “This study” refers to field survey findings from Jeongseon-gun, Taebaek-si, and Yeongyang-gun. Full references are provided in the reference list.
Table 7. Vertical distribution of natural enemy candidates emerging on roots according to soil depth in Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites.
Table 7. Vertical distribution of natural enemy candidates emerging on roots according to soil depth in Cnidium officinale Makino cultivation sites.
LocalityFamilySpeciesNo. of Species According to Soil DepthTotal *
Shallow
(0–2 cm)		Medium
(2–6 cm)		Deep
(6–10 cm)
Jeongseon-gunParasitidaeParasitus sp.90110
Taebaek-siParasitidaeParasitus sp.1222044
MacrochelidaeMacrocheles glaber0303
IchneumonidaeSmicroplectrus sp.1001
Yeongyang-gunParasitidaeParasitus sp.875732176
MacrochelidaeMacrocheles glaber127019
* The total number of species emerging from the five roots collected from one cultivation site in Jeongseon-gun, five cultivation sites in Taebaek-si, and nine cultivation sites in Yeongyang-gun.
Table 8. Checklist of natural enemy candidates of insect pests attacking Cnidium officinale Makino.
Table 8. Checklist of natural enemy candidates of insect pests attacking Cnidium officinale Makino.
OrderFamilySpeciesApplicable PestsReferences
HemipteraPentatomidaeDinorhynchus dybowskyi (Jakovlev, 1876)Lepidoptera larvae[71], This study
MiridaeNesidiocoris tenuis (Reuter, 1895)Aphididae, Aleyrodidae, Tetranychidae[50]
ReduviidaePeirates turpis (Walker, 1873)Little above-ground pests[72], This study
ColeopteraCoccinellidaeCoccinella septempunctata (Linnaeus, 1758)Aphididae[71]
“Harmonia axyridis (Pallas, 1773)Aphididae[71]
HymenopteraBraconidaeAphidius colemani (Viereck, 1912)Aphididae[50]
“Diaeretiella rapae (McIntosh, 1855)Aphididae[50]
IchneumonidaeSmicroplectrus sp.Epinotia majorana (Caradja, 1916)This study
MesostigmataLaelapidaeGaeolaelaps aculeifer (Canestrini, 1883)Soil pests[71]
PhytoseiidaeNeoseiulus womersleyi (Schicha, 1975)Tetranychidae, Thripidae[50]
MacrochelidaeMacrocheles glaber (Mueller, 1860)Soil pestsThis study
ParasitidaeParasitus sp.Soil pestsThis study
PhytoseiidaePhytoseiulus persimilis (Athias-Henriot, 1957)Tetranychidae, Thripidae[50]
LaelapidaeStratiolaelaps scimitus (Womersley, 1956)Soil pests[73]
Total14 species
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Jung, C.R.; Oh, J.-I.; Jeong, J.-H.; Lee, J.-Y.; Kim, S.-Y.; Song, Y.-G.; Kim, T.H.; Park, Y.; Byun, B.-K. Occurrence of Insect Pests and Natural Enemies in Korean Cnidium officinale Cultivation—A Survey. Agronomy 2025, 15, 918. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040918

AMA Style

Jung CR, Oh J-I, Jeong J-H, Lee J-Y, Kim S-Y, Song Y-G, Kim TH, Park Y, Byun B-K. Occurrence of Insect Pests and Natural Enemies in Korean Cnidium officinale Cultivation—A Survey. Agronomy. 2025; 15(4):918. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040918

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jung, Chung Ryul, Jae-In Oh, June-Hyeok Jeong, Ji-Young Lee, Sang-Yoon Kim, Young-Gwang Song, Tae Hyoep Kim, Yonghwan Park, and Bong-Kyu Byun. 2025. "Occurrence of Insect Pests and Natural Enemies in Korean Cnidium officinale Cultivation—A Survey" Agronomy 15, no. 4: 918. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040918

APA Style

Jung, C. R., Oh, J.-I., Jeong, J.-H., Lee, J.-Y., Kim, S.-Y., Song, Y.-G., Kim, T. H., Park, Y., & Byun, B.-K. (2025). Occurrence of Insect Pests and Natural Enemies in Korean Cnidium officinale Cultivation—A Survey. Agronomy, 15(4), 918. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040918

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