Portfolios of Climate Smart Agriculture Practices in Smallholder Rice-Wheat System of Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains—Crop Productivity, Resource Use Efficiency and Environmental Foot Prints
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Experimental Site and Weather Condition
2.2. Experimental Details and Design
2.3. Soil Sampling and Analysis
2.4. Residue Management
2.5. Fertilizer Management
2.6. Weed Management
2.7. Yield Data and Economics
2.8. Irrigation Water Management
2.9. Energy Analysis
2.10. Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) Emission Analysis
2.11. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Weather
3.2. Crop Productivity
3.3. Economics
3.4. Water Use and Water Productivity
3.5. Energy Utilization Pattern and Efficiency
3.6. Global Warming Potential and Carbon Footprints
4. Discussion
4.1. Crop Productivity and Profitability
4.2. Water and Energy Use Efficiency
4.3. Greenhouse Gases Emission and Mitigation Potential
5. Conclusions
6. Future Perspective
- ➢
- CSA in new niches—Popularizing CSA in RW system, which has approximately 14.3 million hectare area in Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP), spread over four Asian countries— Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh. This large area of RW system offers huge potential and scope to expand CSA, thereby improving crop, soil, environmental and nutritional health. By adoption of zero tillage and crop residue directly helps in adding more SOC and releasing external nutrient input dependence.
- ➢
- Portfolios of CSA—The development of a portfolio of climate-smart agriculture practices could tackle the future problems of climate change and speedy depletion of the natural resource base.
- ➢
- Proper mechanization, capacity building of farmers through training and strong policy support needed for upscaling and adoption of CSAPs. This helps farmers to shift from conventional low profit and environment hazardous practices to beneficial CSAPs.
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Scenarios Details | Tillage | Crop Establishment | Laser Land Levelling | Cultivars | Residue Management | Water Management | Nutrient Management | ICT | Crop Insurance | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S1 | Farmer practice | CT | TPR with random geometry in rice and CTW using seed broadcasting | No | Rajshree; PBW343 | FP, Residue removed | FP | FFP | None | None |
S2 | FP with low intensity of adaptive measures | CT | TPR with random geometry in rice and CTW sown with MCP | No | Rajshree; PBW343 | 50% of rice and 25% of wheat residue incorporated | FP | FFP | None | None |
S3 | FP with high intensity of adaptive measures | RT | Direct seeding in rice and wheatsown with MCP | No | Arize 644 Gold;HD 2967 | as in IFP | FP | RDF | None | None |
S4 | CSA with low intensity of adaptive measures | RT-ZT | Same as in S3 | Yes | Arize 644 Gold;HD 2967 | 50% of rice and 25% of wheat residue retention | SR | RDF | None | None |
S5 | CSA with medium intensity of adaptive measures | ZT | Same as in S3 | Yes | Arize 644 Gold;HD 2967 | 50% of rice and 25% of wheat residue retention | Tensiometer based | RDF + GS guided N | Yes | Yes |
S6 | CSA with high intensity of adaptive measures | ZT | Same as in S3 | Yes | Arize 644 Gold;HD 2967 | Same as in CSA-M | Tensiometer based | NE + GS guided N | Yes | Yes |
Scenarios a/Management Practices | Scenario 1 (S1) | Scenario 2 (S2) | Scenario 3 (S3) | Scenario 4 (S4) | Scenario 5 (S5) | Scenario 6 (S6) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Field preparation | Rice- 2 pass of harrow, 1 pass of rotavator, 2 pass of puddle harrow followed by (fb) planking; in wheat- 2 pass of harrow and cultivator each fb planking | Same as in S1 | Rice and wheat-1 pass of harrow, 1 pass of cultivator fb planking; | Rice- Same as in S3; in wheat zero tillage | Zero tillage | Same as in S5 |
Seed rate (kg ha−1) b | 12–137 | Same as in S1 | 25–100 | Same as in S3 | Same as in S3 | Same as in S3 |
Crop geometry | Random geometry | Same as in S1 | 22 cm–20 cm | Same as in S3 | Same as in S3 | Same as in S3 |
Source of fertilizers | Urea (46:0:0), Di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) (18:46:0)and Muriate of potash (MOP) (0:0:60) | Same as in S1 | Urea, DAP, Muriate of potash (MOP) (0:0:60) and NPK complex (12:32:16) | Neem coated urea (46:0:0), DAP, MOP and NPK complex (12:32:16) | Same as in S4 | Same as in S4 |
Dose of Fertilizers | Rice-134:50:33; Wheat- 139:50:33; ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha−1 | Same as in S1 | Rice- 150:60:40; FeSO4 @0.5%; Wheat- 150:60:40; ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha−1 | Same as in S3 | Rice- 148:60:40 (in 1st yr) 145:60:40 (in 2nd yr) and 139:60:40 (in 3rd yr) + FeSO4 @0.5% every year; in Wheat- 144:60:40 (in 1st yr), 147:60:40 (in 2nd yr) and 146:60:40 (in 3rd yr) | Rice- 140:45:58 (in 1st yr), 132:49:57 (in 2nd yr) and 130:31:58 (in 3rd yr); + FeSO4 @0.5% every year; Wheat- 132:44:60 (in 1st yr), 128:48:70 (in 2nd yr) and 137:47:65 (in 3rd yr) |
Scenarios a | Residue Incorporated/Retained (t ha−1) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2014–15 | 2015–16 | 2016–17 | |||||||
Rice | Wheat | RW System | Rice | Wheat | RW System | Rice | Wheat | RW System | |
S1 | -NA- | -NA- | -NA- | -NA- | -NA- | -NA- | -NA- | -NA- | -NA- |
S2 | 3.78 | 1.40 | 5.18 | 3.55 | 1.37 | 4.92 | 3.69 | 1.37 | 5.06 |
S3 | 3.75 | 1.57 | 5.32 | 3.57 | 1.46 | 5.03 | 3.68 | 1.41 | 5.08 |
S4 | 3.73 | 1.60 | 5.34 | 3.71 | 1.52 | 5.23 | 3.72 | 1.50 | 5.22 |
S5 | 3.77 | 1.55 | 5.32 | 3.71 | 1.49 | 5.20 | 3.74 | 1.51 | 5.25 |
S6 | 3.87 | 1.55 | 5.42 | 3.77 | 1.50 | 5.28 | 3.87 | 1.56 | 5.43 |
Item/Commodity | Cost/Price (INR Unit−1) | ||
---|---|---|---|
2014–15 | 2015–16 | 2016–17 | |
Rice grain (kg−1) | 13.5 | 13.5 | 14.5 |
Rice residue (kg−1) | 1.0 | 0.75 | 1.5 |
Rice seed (kg−1) Rajshree/Arize 6444 Gold | 40/250 | 40/250 | 40/250 |
Wheat grain (kg−1) | 14.5 | 15.0 | 15.5 |
Wheat residue (kg−1) | 3.5 | 4.0 | 4.0 |
Wheat seed (kg−1) PBW 343/HD2967 | 25/32 | 25/32 | 25/40 |
Urea (kg−1) | 5.8 | 5.8 | 5.8 |
Di-ammonium-phosphate (DAP) (kg−1) | 23 | 23 | 23 |
Muriate of potash (MOP) (kg−1) | 16.2 | 16.2 | 16.2 |
NPK Complex (kg−1) | 24 | 24 | 24 |
Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) (kg−1) | 40 | 40 | 40 |
Glyphosate (Litre−1) | 280 | 280 | 300 |
Pendimethalin (Liter −1) | 220 | 220 | 280 |
Bispyribac Sodium (mL−1) | 7.25 | 6.50 | 6.50 |
Pyrazosulfuronethly (g−1) | 2.50 | 2.75 | 2.75 |
Clodinafop-ethyl + Metsulfuron (g−1) | 2.20 | 2.25 | 2.25 |
Harrowing (ha−1) | 1650 | 1650 | 1650 |
Cultivator (ha−1) | 1000 | 1000 | 1000 |
Planking (ha−1) | 500 | 500 | 500 |
Puddler (ha−1) | 3850 | 3850 | 3850 |
Rotavator (ha−1) | 1925 | 1925 | 1925 |
Seed drill (ha−1) | 2200 | 2200 | 2200 |
Minimum support price (MSP) for rice (kg−1) | 13.6 | 14.1 | 14.7 |
Minimum support price (MSP) for wheat (kg−1) | 14.5 | 15.25 | 16.25 |
Wages Rate (person−1 day−1) | 193 | 204 | 211 |
USD ($) to INR Conversation rate | 66 | 66 | 66 |
Particulars | Unit | Energy Equivalent (MJ Unit−1) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
A. Input | |||
Human labor | Man-hour | 1.96 | Parihar et al. (2017) |
Diesel | Liter | 56.31 | Parihar et al. (2018) |
Nitrogen (N) | kg | 66.14 | Gathala et al. (2016) |
Phosphorus (P2O5) | kg | 22.44 | Gathala et al. (2016) |
Potassium (K2O) | kg | 11.15 | Gathala et al. (2016) |
Herbicides, insecticides and pesticides | kg | 120 | Gathala et al. (2016) |
Irrigation water | ha-cm | 143.56 | Gathala et al. (2016) |
Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) | kg | 8.4 | Argiro et al. (2006) |
Iron sulphate (FeSO4) | kg | 110 | Argiro et al. (2006) |
Rice/Wheat seed | kg | 14.7 | Ozkan et al. (2004) |
B. Output | |||
Rice and Wheat grain | kg | 14.7 | Ozkan et al. (2004) |
Rice and Wheat Straw | kg | 12.5 | Ozkan et al. (2004) |
Scenario | Grain Yield (t ha−1) | Cost of Cultivation (USD ha−1) | Net Return (USD ha−1) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rice | Wheat | RW System | Rice | Wheat | RW System | Rice | Wheat | RW System | |
2014–15 | |||||||||
S1 | 5.73 | 4.42 b | 10.44 b | 846.30 | 586.08 | 1432.37 | 447.08 b | 752.26 c | 1199.34 d |
S2 | 5.75 | 4.45 b | 10.49 b | 839.01 | 573.23 | 1412.24 | 416.47 b | 700.39 c | 1116.87 d |
S3 | 5.65 | 5.13 a | 11.12 a | 669.64 | 592.75 | 1262.39 | 565.71 a | 866.97 b | 1432.68 c |
S4 | 5.63 | 5.26 a | 11.24 a | 668.08 | 572.5 | 1240.58 | 561.84 a | 924.12 ab | 1485.96 bc |
S5 | 5.69 | 5.31 a | 11.35 a | 642.93 | 569.43 | 1212.37 | 601.43 a | 924.99 ab | 1526.42 ab |
S6 | 5.78 | 5.46 a | 11.60 a | 644.52 | 566.91 | 1211.42 | 620.22 a | 960.39 a | 1580.61 a |
p-value | 0.9622 | 0.0003 | 0.0025 | <0.0001 | 0.228 | <0.0001 | 0.0009 | 0.0002 | <0.0001 |
2015–16 | |||||||||
S1 | 4.99 | 4.46 c | 9.81 c | 802.80 | 617.80 | 1420.60 | 345.88 b | 822.23 bc | 1168.12 c |
S2 | 4.98 | 4.59 c | 9.94 c | 796.68 | 608.14 | 1404.82 | 320.18 b | 783.16 c | 1103.34 c |
S3 | 5.15 | 4.81 bc | 10.35 bc | 644.76 | 598.05 | 1242.81 | 506.72 a | 866.95 b | 1373.68 b |
S4 | 5.18 | 5.17 ab | 10.77 ab | 646.26 | 589.08 | 1235.34 | 514.92 a | 973.21 a | 1488.13 ab |
S5 | 5.16 | 5.21 ab | 10.80 ab | 616.97 | 588.00 | 1204.97 | 540.86 a | 977.20 a | 1518.06 a |
S6 | 5.27 | 5.38 a | 11.09 a | 614.94 | 592.46 | 1207.41 | 566.30 a | 1014.77 a | 1581.06 a |
p-value | 0.5429 | 0.0033 | 0.0075 | <0.0001 | 0.0492 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0004 | <0.0001 |
2016–17 | |||||||||
S1 | 5.13 | 4.67 b | 10.29 c | 881.72 | 642.18 | 1523.90 | 427.04 c | 910.54 b | 1337.58 d |
S2 | 5.21 | 4.70 b | 10.41 c | 873.65 | 629.34 | 1502.99 | 395.95 c | 860.06 b | 1256.02 d |
S3 | 5.32 | 4.88 b | 10.71 bc | 705.96 | 615.67 | 1321.63 | 585.41 b | 925.68 b | 1511.09 c |
S4 | 5.33 | 5.33 a | 11.23 ab | 705.89 | 614.51 | 1320.40 | 590.47 b | 1061.96 a | 1652.43 bc |
S5 | 5.38 | 5.37 a | 11.31 ab | 675.80 | 612.37 | 1288.16 | 631.06 ab | 1075.02 a | 1706.09 ab |
S6 | 5.73 | 5.55 a | 11.86 a | 672.63 | 619.88 | 1292.51 | 714.11 a | 1123.69 a | 1837.80 a |
p-value | 0.1447 | 0.0028 | 0.0086 | <0.0001 | 0.1163 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0007 | <0.0001 |
Scenario | Irrigation Water Use (mm ha−1) | Rain Fall (mmha−1) | Irrigation Water (IW) Productivity (kg grain m−3 water) | Total Water Productivity (IW + Rainfall) (kg grain m−3 water) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rice | Wheat | RW System | Rice | Wheat | RW System | Rice | Wheat | RW System | Rice | Wheat | RW System | |
2014-15 | ||||||||||||
S1 | 489.1 a | 191.8 a | 680.9 a | 817.3 | 39.0 | 856.3 | 1.18 b | 2.30 d | 1.54 d | 0.44 a | 1.91 d | 0.68 d |
S2 | 490.5 a | 192.2 a | 682.7 a | 817.3 | 39.0 | 856.3 | 1.18 b | 2.32 d | 1.54 d | 0.44 | 1.92 d | 0.68 d |
S3 | 338.2 b | 176.7 b | 515.0 b | 911.5 | 39.0 | 950.5 | 1.67 a | 2.94 c | 2.15 c | 0.45 a | 2.37 c | 0.75 cb |
S4 | 336.0 b | 151.3 c | 487.3 c | 911.5 | 39.0 | 950.5 | 1.67 a | 3.52 ab | 2.31 ab | 0.45 a | 2.79 ab | 0.78 ab |
S5 | 325.8 b | 149.9 c | 475.7 c | 911.5 | 39.0 | 950.5 | 1.75 a | 3.57 ab | 2.39 a | 0.46 a | 2.82 ab | 0.80 ab |
S6 | 325.8 b | 149.9 c | 475.7 c | 911.5 | 39.0 | 950.5 | 1.77 a | 3.67 a | 2.44 a | 0.47 a | 2.90 a | 0.81 a |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.0033 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.5895 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||
2015-16 | ||||||||||||
S1 | 505.6 a | 190.0 a | 695.6 a | 559.1 a | 6.5 | 565.6 | 0.99 b | 2.34 c | 1.41 d | 0.47 a | 2.27 c | 0.78 c |
S2 | 507.2 a | 190.3 a | 697.5 a | 559.1 a | 6.5 | 565.6 | 0.98 b | 2.41 c | 1.43 d | 0.47 a | 2.33 c | 0.79 c |
S3 | 394.6 b | 144.1 b | 538.7 b | 644.8 a | 6.5 | 651.3 | 1.30 a | 3.34 b | 1.92 c | 0.50 a | 3.19 b | 0.87 b |
S4 | 392.0 b | 131.9 c | 523.9 c | 644.8 a | 6.5 | 651.3 | 1.32 a | 3.92a | 2.05 b | 0.50 a | 3.73 a | 0.92 ab |
S5 | 380.1 c | 131.3 c | 511.4 d | 644.8 a | 6.5 | 651.3 | 1.36 a | 3.97 a | 2.11 ab | 0.50 a | 3.78 a | 0.93 a |
S6 | 380.1 c | 131.3 c | 511.4 d | 644.8 a | 6.5 | 651.0 | 1.39 a | 4.10 a | 2.17 a | 0.51 a | 3.90 a | 0.95 a |
p-value | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0842 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||
2016-17 | ||||||||||||
S1 | 460.6 a | 193.0 a | 653.6 a | 787.9 | 20.1 | 808.0 | 1.12 c | 2.42 d | 1.58 d | 0.41 a | 2.19 d | 0.70 c |
S2 | 459.7 a | 192.4 b | 652.1 a | 787.9 | 20.1 | 808.0 | 1.14 c | 2.44 d | 1.60 d | 0.42 a | 2.21 d | 0.71 c |
S3 | 341.0 b | 149.9 c | 490.9 b | 899.3 | 20.1 | 919.4 | 1.56 b | 3.25 c | 2.18 c | 0.43 a | 2.87 c | 0.76 bc |
S4 | 337.4 bc | 138.5 d | 475.9 c | 899.3 | 20.1 | 919.4 | 1.58 b | 3.85 b | 2.36 b | 0.43 a | 3.36 b | 0.80 ab |
S5 | 327.4 c | 128.9 f | 456.3 d | 899.3 | 20.1 | 919.4 | 1.64 ab | 4.16 a | 2.48 ab | 0.44 a | 3.60 ab | 0.82 a |
S6 | 326.6 c | 128.9 e | 455.5 d | 899.3 | 20.1 | 919.4 | 1.75 a | 4.30 a | 2.60 a | 0.47 a | 3.72 a | 0.86 a |
p-value | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0941 | <0.0001 | 0.0007 |
Scenario | Energy Input × 103 (MJ ha−1) | Energy Output × 103 (MJ ha−1) | Energy Use Efficiency (MJMJ−1) | Energy Productivity (Kg MJ−1) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rice | Wheat | RW System | Rice | Wheat | RW System | Rice | Wheat | RW System | Rice | Wheat | RW System | |
2014–15 | ||||||||||||
S1 | 34.70 a | 23.65 a | 58.35 a | 176.96 | 151.56 b | 328.52 b | 5.16 c | 6.41 d | 5.65 d | 0.17 c | 0.19 d | 0.18 d |
S2 | 34.64 a | 23.65 a | 58.29 a | 179.03 | 152.73 b | 331.77 b | 5.20 c | 6.46 d | 5.70 d | 0.17 c | 0.19 d | 0.18 d |
S3 | 30.84 b | 23.41 a | 54.25 b | 176.81 | 173.58 a | 350.39 a | 5.75 b | 7.43 c | 6.46 c | 0.18 b | 0.22 c | 0.20 c |
S4 | 29.50 b | 20.53 b | 50.03 c | 176.06 | 177.56 a | 353.62 a | 5.98 b | 8.68 b | 7.07 b | 0.19 b | 0.26 b | 0.22 b |
S5 | 26.52 c | 19.05 c | 45.57 d | 177.91 | 174.72 a | 352.63 a | 6.74 a | 9.17 ab | 7.75 a | 0.22 a | 0.28 a | 0.25 a |
S6 | 25.78 c | 18.61 c | 44.39 d | 181.82 | 176.97 a | 358.79 a | 7.07 a | 9.52 a | 8.09 a | 0.22 a | 0.29 a | 0.26 a |
p-value | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.8723 | 0.0019 | 0.0042 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
2015–16 | ||||||||||||
S1 | 31.57 a | 24.76 a | 56.34 a | 165.13 | 150.14 c | 315.27 c | 5.28 c | 6.06 e | 5.61 d | 0.16 c | 0.18 e | 0.17 e |
S2 | 31.49 a | 24.76 a | 56.26 a | 162.04 | 152.94 c | 314.98 c | 5.18 c | 6.18 e | 5.62 d | 0.16 c | 0.19 de | 0.18 e |
S3 | 29.44 ab | 23.65 b | 53.08 b | 164.99 | 161.97 b | 326.96 bc | 5.60 bc | 6.86 d | 6.16 d | 0.17 bc | 0.20 d | 0.19 d |
S4 | 28.21 b | 20.56 c | 48.77 c | 168.87 | 170.99 a | 339.86 ab | 5.98 b | 8.32 c | 6.97 c | 0.18 b | 0.25 c | 0.22 c |
S5 | 24.18 c | 19.09 d | 43.27 d | 168.68 | 169.68 ab | 338.36 ab | 6.98 a | 8.89 b | 7.82 b | 0.21 a | 0.27 b | 0.25 b |
S6 | 23.02 c | 18.14 e | 41.16 d | 171.79 | 172.93 a | 344.72 a | 7.46 a | 9.54 a | 8.38 a | 0.23 a | 0.30 a | 0.27 a |
p-value | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.6614 | 0.0006 | 0.0102 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
2016–17 | ||||||||||||
S1 | 31.57 a | 24.76 a | 56.34 a | 166.98 | 151.70 b | 318.68 d | 5.32 d | 6.13 e | 5.67 d | 0.16 d | 0.19 d | 0.18 d |
S2 | 31.49 a | 24.76 a | 56.26 a | 168.99 | 154.65 b | 323.63 cd | 5.40 cd | 6.25 de | 5.77 d | 0.17 cd | 0.19 d | 0.19 d |
S3 | 29.44 ab | 23.65 b | 53.08 b | 170.14 | 159.52 b | 329.66 bcd | 5.78 cd | 6.75 d | 6.21 d | 0.18 cd | 0.21 d | 0.20 d |
S4 | 28.21 b | 20.56 c | 48.77 c | 171.40 | 172.11 a | 343.51 abc | 6.08 c | 8.38 c | 7.04 c | 0.19 c | 0.26 c | 0.23 c |
S5 | 24.18 c | 19.09 d | 43.27 d | 172.60 | 173.24 a | 345.84 ab | 7.14 b | 9.08 b | 7.99 b | 0.22 b | 0.28 b | 0.26 b |
S6 | 23.02 c | 18.14 e | 41.16 d | 180.94 | 178.94 a | 359.88 a | 7.86 a | 9.87 a | 8.74 a | 0.25 a | 0.31 a | 0.29 a |
p-value | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.3482 | 0.0015 | 0.0134 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <.0001 |
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Bijarniya, D.; Parihar, C.M.; Jat, R.K.; Kalvania, K.; Kakraliya, S.K.; Jat, M.L. Portfolios of Climate Smart Agriculture Practices in Smallholder Rice-Wheat System of Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains—Crop Productivity, Resource Use Efficiency and Environmental Foot Prints. Agronomy 2020, 10, 1561. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10101561
Bijarniya D, Parihar CM, Jat RK, Kalvania K, Kakraliya SK, Jat ML. Portfolios of Climate Smart Agriculture Practices in Smallholder Rice-Wheat System of Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains—Crop Productivity, Resource Use Efficiency and Environmental Foot Prints. Agronomy. 2020; 10(10):1561. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10101561
Chicago/Turabian StyleBijarniya, Deepak, C. M. Parihar, R. K. Jat, Kailash Kalvania, S. K. Kakraliya, and M. L. Jat. 2020. "Portfolios of Climate Smart Agriculture Practices in Smallholder Rice-Wheat System of Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains—Crop Productivity, Resource Use Efficiency and Environmental Foot Prints" Agronomy 10, no. 10: 1561. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10101561