Lignins as Promising Renewable Biopolymers and Bioactive Compounds for High-Performance Materials
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Lignin Structure and Properties
2.1. Analytics and Structure
2.2. Technical Lignins
2.3. Other Sources of Lignin
3. Biobased Products from Lignin
3.1. Aromatic Chemicals
3.2. Phenolic Compounds
3.3. Vanillin
3.4. Adipic Acid from Lignin
3.5. Carbon Fibers
3.6. Biochar
4. New Developments in Lignin Use as Raw Material for Some Polymeric Materials
4.1. Phenolic Resins
4.2. Polyurethanes
4.3. Epoxy Thermosets
5. New Developments in the Use of Lignin as a Bioactive Compound
5.1. Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, Antifungal, Antiviral, Antitumoral, and Drug Carrier Activities
5.2. Lignin Chemical Modification
5.3. Lignin Use in Agriculture
6. Lignin Nanoparticles
6.1. Green Approaches to Preparing LNPs and Their Properties
6.2. Lignin Nanoparticle Applications
6.3. Lignin Nanofibers
LNPs and Other Components | Properties and Applications | Refs |
---|---|---|
Lignin nanoparticles (LNPs)/starch | Green nanofiller in starch-based biocomposites; strong interfacial hydrogen bonding; enhanced mechanical properties, thermal stability, antioxidant activity, and good (UV) irradiation shielding performance; applications such as delayed oxidative deterioration of soybean oil/advanced food packaging | [199] |
Lignin nanoparticles obtained by a acidolysis process from corn lignin/polyurethane, polyethylene glycol and diisocyanates | LNPs as crosslinking agent in polyurethane nanocomposites. Composites with hydrophobic, UV resistant and dielectric properties, enhanced tensile strength; good reprocessability | [200] |
0.5 wt% lignin and nanolignin in poly(lactic acid) composites synthesized by in situ reactive processing as melt mixing and ring-opening polymerization (ROP) | Reactive processing produced nanolignin-containing composites with superior crystallization, mechanical, and antioxidant properties. LNPs act as a macroinitiator in the ROP of lactide, resulting in PLA-grafted nanolignin particles, improved dispersion and the formation of interfacial covalent bonds facilitated by LNPs | [201] |
Lignin-based nano-micelles using the “grafting-from” method | pH-sensitive, biocompatible, suitable for oral drug delivery | [202] |
Nanolignin/chitin nanofibrils and complexes loaded with active molecules, such as vitamin E, sodium ascorbyl phosphate, lutein, nicotinamide, and glycyrrhetinic acid | Spray-drying method; nanostructured chitin; Functional agents in skin regeneration and antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities; cytocompatibility in skin regeneration. | [203] |
PCL coated with chitin–lignin gel; shell/core fiber, coaxial electrospinning; electrospun PCL/lignin, initial blending | Methylene blue, penicillin/streptomycin; sustainable drug release; wound dressing; fibrous scaffolds; MTT tissue engineering | [197,204] |
LNP/PVA/PVP electrospinning. Initial blending | Paclitaxel local anticancer therapy | [205] |
AgNP-loaded electrospun PVA/lignin nanofibers | Membrane filtration, antimicrobial fabrics, and wound dressing | [206] |
Lignin/cellulose acetate/N-vanillidene-phenylthiazole copper (Il) complexes, nanofibrous materials | Antimicrobial for hygienic applications | [207] |
7. Lignin-Based Hydrogels
8. Three-Dimensional-Printing-Based Lignin Biomaterials
9. Lignin Use in Green Functional/Complex Materials
Components of Biocomposites | Lignin Role/Application of Product | References |
---|---|---|
Agriculture | ||
Azide-modified cellulose/0.5–2 wt% covalently bonded lignin with UV-blocking properties; propargylated lignin | Biodegradable, flexible, and transparent UV protection films from renewable resources | [297] |
Polyvinyl alcohol PVA/lignin, spherical organosolv, lignin particles, LNPs obtained by dialysis with THF or ethanol as solvents | UV-blocking lignin–PVA composite film | [328] |
Alkali lignin/carbon nanoparticles (C-NPs) containing lignin nanoparticles (L-NPs) | Agro-nanotechnology - Cost-effective alternative compared to conventional commercial fungicides - Environmentally benign nanopesticides for long-term plant protection - Antifungal nanocomposite - Control agent against Fusarium verticillioides in maize | [329] |
Alginate/polyvinyl alcohol/calcium chloride and boric as crosslinkers | Three-dimensional (3D) biocomposite adsorbent; multiporous architecture; excellent substitute for a commercial EDTA-Fe micronutrient; eco-friendly, highly efficient | [330] |
Waste treatment | ||
Hydrophilic sulfonated kraft lignin/polyethersulfone (PES) | Layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly; antifouling coating; oily wastewater treatment | [331] |
Lignin-derived adsorption materials | Compounded lignin with other materials; high-value-added lignin adsorbent material wastewater treatment | [332] |
Food Packaging | ||
Enzymatic hydrolysis of dried solid from alkali treatment of wheat straw/dry corn starch, glycerol, solution casting method | Lignin particles act as reinforcements for green biodegradable starch films | [323] |
Technical lignin/cellulose | Cellulose/technical lignin composites; antioxidant and UV barrier Advanced packaging | [333] |
Lignosulfonate/alginate | Photoprotective and antioxidant properties; enhanced barrier properties of the blend films and antioxidant activity; active packaging applications | [334] |
Lignin nanoparticles/chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol | Lignin increased mechanical strength and antioxidant and antibacterial activity. Active food packaging | [335] |
Low molar mass alkali lignin/PLA | Increased water barrier properties (up to 73%) photodegradability; biocompatibility, antimicrobial activity; very good cellular response and very low cytotoxicity levels; food packaging | [336] |
Hydroxypropyl lignin or lignosulfonate or alkaline lignin/soy protein | Enhanced mechanical performance, water resistivity of soy protein plastics and specific functional properties; biomedical uses; food packaging | [337] |
Alkaline lignin (AL) and sodium lignosulfonate (LSS)/PEG/thermoplastic zein | Strong H-bonding modifying α-helix, β-sheet, and β-turn secondary structures; improved physical properties; due to the interaction of AL with zein molecules, enhanced strength and water resistivity of soy protein plastics. Food packaging Biomedical uses | [338] |
Lignin/tannic acid/biodegradable PBAT composite film: epoxidized soya bean (ESO) oil as plasticizer and encapsulated lignin/tannic acid as filler | Reduced water vapor and oxygen transmission rate; improved properties and degradability. Extended shelf-life and preservation of food, including fresh potato and onion Packaging of dry food products | [339] |
Kraft lignin/poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) nano-composite Pickering emulsion and hot compression | Hydrogen bonding interactions; improved mechanical properties, UV resistance/blocking and higher melt viscosity; Food packaging | [340] |
Technical soda lignin (ethyl acetate extract/high-density polyethylene. Melt extrusion | Composite for food packaging. Antioxidant and insect repellent activities | [341] |
Biomedical | ||
Alkali lignin green synthesis of AgNP/carrageenan/calcium chloride, copper chloride magnesium chloride silver | Antibacterial against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli; biocompatible; Wound dressing and healing effect | [190] |
Nanolignin (NL) and its composites | Cancer therapy drug and gene delivery, biosensing, bioimaging, and tissue engineering; therapeutic potency of chemotherapeutic drugs by decreasing their dose and reducing their adverse effects | [342] |
Lignin as decoration for multi-walled nanotubes/PVA-lignin fiber nanocomposites | Antimicrobial properties Wound healing/tissue engineering | [343] |
Lignosulfonate/PVA/chitosan | 70% reduction in free radicals; good antibacterial abilities at 10% (w/w) lignin; wound healing | [220] |
Kraft lignin/PVA/poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS) electrospinning | PVA-PGS-lignin fibers. Lignin incorporation promotes neural cell proliferation and differentiation. Tissue engineering/regeneration | [344] |
Kraft lignin/electrospun PCL fibers embedding lignin nanoparticles | Peripheral nerve regeneration | [345] |
Alkali lignin/PLA-lignin nanofiber silver-ion-containing lignin nanoparticles/poly(lactide)–lignin nanofibers. | Antioxidant activity; eco-friendly alternative to AgNPs in antimicrobial and antioxidative applications; biomedical application Tissue engineering | [193] |
Lignins extracted from pine residue esterified with succinic anhydride/PLA | Enhanced mechanical and thermal properties of PLA Excellent antimicrobial and biocompatibility. | [346] |
Lignosulfonate/polyoxazoline/triazoles (linked silver) | Antimicrobial against many strains such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Candida albicans, and Candida tropicalis; Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, preventing infection; promotion of healing; reduced inflammation on burn wound | [347] |
Softwood kraft lignin/poly(butylene succinate) melt-mixing extrusion | Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties; resistance to adherence of the common nosocomial pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. Pharmaceutical/biomedical applications | [181] |
New High-Performance Materials | ||
Organosolv lignin/polylactide/PVAc poly(vinyl acetate)/GMAglycidyl methacrylate, reactive extrusion | Super-toughened bio-elastomer PLA composite; improved interfacial adhesion; PVAc and GMA as toughening agents; single glass transition temperature. High elongation at break and impact strength; replaces petroleum-based elastomers such as EPDM elastomer | [348] |
Micro- or nano-Soda lignin (NL) as green filler; content between 0.5–5 wt%/PLA masterbatch prepared by solvent casting, then melt mixing. | Biobased and biodegradable PLA films; Interfacial interactions, slightly stronger in the case of NL acting as fillers. Competitive green alternative in the food packaging industry | [201] |
Acetylated lignin/thermoplastic polyurethane mixing | Lignin-based thermoplastic polyurethane adhesive. Wood adhesive | [349] |
1–10 wt% grape seed lignin/highly crystalline (PHB)/amorphous (PHA). Polyhydroxyalkanoate modification | Improved mechanical and gas-barrier properties, high antioxidant capacity of lignin; biodegradability; active biodegradable packaging films; lignin can change the crystallinity of PHB in compost; nontoxicity of materials and its degradation products; positive effect on white mustard (Sinapis alba L.) seed germination | [350] |
Methylated lignin, lignin esters, or lignin-containing epoxy groups/poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) coextrusion; PBAT grafted with maleic anhydride as a stabilizer; poly-3-hydroxybutyrate PHB or poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate | Economically competitive biodegradable PBAT/lignin and PHB/L composites Low-cost filler, 36% price reduction; good properties; degradability | [351] |
Lignin-containing microfibrillated cellulose isolated from chemi-thermomechanical pulp or acetylated/PLA | Biocomposites with controlled biodegradation of polylactic acid (PLA). Biotic degradability | [352] |
Unfunctionalized lignin and 3-aminopropyltriethoxy silane functionalized lignin/waterborne polyurethane. Chemical reaction | Lignin as natural reinforcing filler | [353] |
Lignin/polyfurfuryl alcohol | Thermosets; Eco-friendly composite resins | [354] |
10. Energy Storage and Conversion Technologies
10.1. Sustainable Fuel from Lignin
10.2. Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF)
10.3. Electrochemical and Energy Storage Applications
10.4. Lignin-Based Organic Flow Batteries
11. Conclusions
11.1. Lignin as Promising Renewable Source
11.2. Challenges and Future Trends
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristic/ Technical Lignin | Soda and Alkali Lignin | Kraft Lignin | Acid Hydrolysis/ Enzymatic Lignin | Organosolv Lignin | Lignosulfonates | Ionic Liquid Lignin | Steam Explosion Lignin |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lignin separation | For non-woody biomass; 13–16% NaOH 140–170 °C | Na2S and NaOH 150–180 °C Thermochemical conversion of black liquor-small alkali soluble fragments | Diluted or concentrated acids as H2SO4, HCl, HNO3, H3PO4, maleic acid | Hydrothermal treatment of biomass with water and organic solvent | SO2 and water at 140–160 °C and carbonates and hydroxide salts | Ionic liquid | Mild hydrolysis; steam at high T temperature and pressure |
Ash, % | 0.7–2.3 | 0.5–3.0 | 1.0–3.0 | 1.7 | 4.0–8.0 | 0.6–2.0 | 5–8 |
Moisture content, % | 2.5–5.0 | 3.0–6.0 | 4.0–9.0 | 7.5 | 5.8 | - | |
Carbohydrates, % | 1.5–3.0 | 1.0–2.3 | 10.0–22.4 | 1–3 | - | 0.1 | 2.5–4 |
Acid soluble lignin, % | 1.0–11 | 1–4.9 | 2.9 | 1.9 | - | - | |
Nitrogen, % | 0.2–1.0 | 0.05 | 0.5–1.4 | 0–0.3 | 0.02 | - | |
Sulphur, % | 0 | 1.0–3.0 | 0–1.0 | 0 | 3.5–8.0 | 1.5/ | 0–0.5 |
Phenolic hydroxyls, % | 2.9–5.1 | 2.6–5 | 3–9 | 3.7–3.4 | 2–2.5 | 4.5–7 | |
Acids, % | 5.4–13.6 | 4.1–6 | 6–10 | 7–8 | 4.6 | 1.0–5 | |
Methoxy, % | 10–19 | 11–14 | −19 | −15 | 9 | −13 | |
Purity | Moderate–High | High | Moderate–Low | High | Low–moderate | Moderate–Low | |
Molecular weight, Mw | 1000–3000 (up to 15,000) | 1500–5000 (up to 25,000) | 5000–10,000 | 500–5000 | 1000–50,000 (up to 150,000) | ≈~2000 | 3500–15,000 |
Polydispersity | 2.5–3.5 | 2.5–3.5 | 4.0–11.0 | 1.5–4.2 | 7.0 | - |
Hydrogel Components | Characteristics and Applications | Refs |
---|---|---|
Agriculture | ||
Alkali lignin and -based poly(ethylene glycol) diglycidyl ether | Increased availability and retention of soil water, which is beneficial for plant growth; high efficiency in severe dryness conditions; alleviated drought stress in maize | [231] |
Physically crosslinked alkaline and organosolv lignins or lignins/poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels | Significant swelling and water holding capacity; addition of lignin enhanced the swelling/water retention ability of hydrogels by 800% | [232] |
Lignin/alginate/konjaku flour-based hydrogel | Increased water holding/retention and of the nutrient retention capacity of the soil, increase in the mass of tobacco plant under dryness conditions | [233] |
Lignin/polyacrylic acid-based hydrogels | Controlled release of some pesticides (i.e., paraquat, cyfluthrin, and cyhalofop-butyl) | [234] |
Wastewater treatment and removal of pollutants | ||
Black liquor lignin-hydroxyethyl cellulose hydrogel | Super-absorbent hydrogel; removal of dye pollutants | [235] |
Polyacrylic acid-g-pretreated alkali lignin porous hydrogel | Removal of Pb2+, Cu2+, and Cd2+ | [236] |
Lignin functionalized with hexadecyltrimethylammonium-bromide-based spherical particles | Lignin-based biosorbents; removal of vanadium (V) ions from aqueous solution | [237] |
Lignosulfonate/lysine hydrogel | Adsorption of heavy metal ions | [238] |
Lignin/PVA or LNP/nanocellulose (cryogels); anchoring lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) to the nanocellulose network via electrostatic attraction | Environmental engineering. Adsorbents for pharmaceutical pollutants (e.g., diclofenac, metoprolol, tramadol, carbamazepine) and Bisphenol A | [186,239] |
Hydrogel was obtained by free-radical polymerization in the presence of methylenebisacrylamide (MBA), alkali lignin (AL), and potassium persulfate (PPS). Carboxylated cellulose nanofibrils (CCNs) and carbon dots (CDs) as fluorescent probes were prepared via a condensation reaction | Fluorescent hydrogel. Adsorption of Cr (VI), excellent optical properties, biocompatibility, and nontoxicity significant efficiency in adsorption and detection of Cr (VI) | [240] |
Biomedical [206] | ||
Alkaline and organosolv lignins, hydoxymethylated lignins, peroxidated lignins/PVA | Onion peels were valorized for quercetin (natural drug) microwave extraction; controlled drug delivery, and quercetin-controlled delivery applications | [241] |
Lignin-agarose hydrogel/silk fibroin (SF) embedded zinc chromite nanoparticles | Hemocompatibility and antibacterial activity; complete healing of the wounds in mice treated with the scaffold of crosslinked lignin–agarose/SF/ZnCr2O4 nano-biocomposite after five days; wound healing application; | [242] |
Enzymatic hydrolysis lignin (wheat straw)–alginate cryogels and cryogels obtained from the freezing technique; wet and dry alginate–lignin aerogels | Porous structure; lignin reduced hydrophilicity of alginate; wound healing and tissue repairing/tissue engineering; regenerative medicine | [243] |
Lignin-co-gelatin (cryogels) and chemically crosslinking and Ag2O/CuO NPs | Antioxidant, antibacterial, injectable lignin/gelatin composite cryogels; wound healing and tissue engineering; good mechanical properties and microporous structure; very good free scavenging activity; inhibited growth of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria | [244] |
Lignin/gelatin hydrogels with different concentrations of lignin | Fast-release drug carriers used to deliver Ribavirin in COVID-19 treatment | [245,246] |
Organosolv lignin/gelatin composite cryogels obtained by chemically crosslinking at −20 °C. Organosolv lignin and gelatin; multifunctional, bioactive lignin-co-gelatin composite cryogels obtained by chemically crosslinking lignin together with gelatin at −20 °C. | Multifunctional, bioactive cryogel with antimicrobial (reduced E. coli and S. aureus viability) and antioxidant activities; in vitro cyto-compatibility (after 72 h of incubation, viability of 3T3 cells was 97%); improved mechanical properties and syringe injectability | [219,242] |
Ag/lignin NPs/PAA-pectin hydrogel | Good mechanical, antibacterial, and wound healing properties; epidermal growth factor loaded in the Ag-lignin NPs-PAA-pectin hydrogel increases the wound healing activity | [188,247] |
Lignin/poly(ethylene) glycol diglycidyl ether hydrogel | Drug delivery; controlled release of paracetamol | [248] |
Organosolv lignin extracted from coconut husks/polyethylene glycol (PEG), polypropylene glycol (PPG), polydimethylsiloxane (PDS) nanogel | Thermo-responsive polyurethane-based copolymer nanogel; lignin-incorporated nanogel; acts as an antioxidant biomaterial for wound healing; human L-02 hepatocyte cell viability > 90%; rapid and complete wound healing after 25 days; wound-dressing application | [249] |
Lignin-carbohydrate complex/PEG diglycidyl ether | Cell carriers; positive hepatocyte adhesion; biocompatibility | [250] |
Alkali lignin/chitosan hydrogels | Wound healing applications; low cytotoxicity, biocompatibility, 99 ± 3% cell viability | [143] |
Lignosulfonate/poly(vinyl alcohol)/chitosan composites hydrogel; lignin mixing an aqueous acidic solution of chitosan and solutions of lignin and PVA | Composite hydrogel; 10 wt% lignin had enhanced hydrophilicity, antimicrobial behavior, and antioxidant capability; wound dressing | [220] |
Lignosulfonate; in situ reduction of AgNPs then crosslinked in the lignin/PVA hydrogel | Improved antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, non-cytotoxicity, biocompatibility, wound healing | [251] |
Lignin/PVA cryogel; freeze-drying crosslinking and curing methods | “Smart” biomaterial scaffolds elaborated by using a factorial design scaffold fabrication model; 800% water retention capacity; controlled drug loading and delivery; pH and temperature responsiveness; antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger strain | [232,252] |
40–24% lignin-containing alcohol groups/Gantrez S-97 (GAN) (methylvinylether and maleic acid copolymer)/PEG by esterification reaction accelerated by microwave radiation, crosslinking time was reduced from 24 to 1 h | Reductions in Staphylococcus aureus and Proteus mirabilis adherence (two common pathogens responsible for medical-device-associated infections); curcumin delivery | [222] |
Glycinated kraft lignin/hyaluronic acid hydrogels | Non-cytotoxicity (>90% cell viability); positive cell migration and cell growth | [253] |
Kraft lignin/PLA/Rose Bengal, gold, silver | pH-responsive hydrogels; antifungal and antimicrobial properties at very low IC50 values (0.1 μg/mL) | [254] |
Lignin epoxy-modified resin/xanthan crosslinking with epichlorohydrin | Superabsorbent hydrogel; high swelling rate in aqueous medium; release of hydrophilic bisoprolol fumarate drug for high blood pressure and heart failure treatments | [255] |
Low and high lignin content/cellulose nanofiber; ultrasound-assisted | Tissue engineering; cytocompatibility with gingival fibroblast cells | [256] |
Methacrylated lignin (lignin-MA)/sulfobetaine methacrylate (SBMA) double network structure consisting of chemical and physical crosslinking between SBMA and lignin-MA | Lignin-MA as hydrogel skeleton and antibacterial agent; 94.8% reduction rate against E. coli and 95.7% against S. aureus; high hydrophilicity because of zwitterionic SBMA. Antifouling and antimicrobial properties, potential applications in medical devices and as biological material | [257] |
Food packaging | ||
Lignin (black liquor of bagasse) into PVA/gelatin blends | Antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities against food-borne contaminants as Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus and Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa | [258] |
Components | Characteristics and Applications | Refs |
---|---|---|
15% by weight modified lignin-containing photoactive resins | These materials generate new products for additive manufacturing applications, with a four-fold increase in ductility. Excellent print quality was obtained with modified lignin resins with a commercial stereolithography system | [288] |
Organosolv lignin OSL/hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), 40/60 and 50/50 mixtures | Lignin/HPC biobased aqueous inks; direct-write lyotropic blends; high performance | [289] |
Lignin–carrageenan/AgNP-MgCl2 one-pot synthesis of AgNPs | Lignin as a reducing agent for AgNP green synthesis and capping agent in the carrageenan matrix crosslinked with divalent cations; wound healing; fast wound dressing | [290] |
Spherical colloidal lignin particles/cellulose nanofibril-alginate | Three-dimensional printed cell culture model; soft-tissue engineering | [291] |
Keratin/lignin hydrogels | Smooth films and nanoparticles; 4D functional biocomposite materials. Protein complexation by lignin was applied to form copolymers and reinforce keratin crosslinking networks on aqueous and solid state processing 3D and 4D printing | [292] |
Kraft lignin/keratin | Fully biodegradable keratin hydrogels through ”greener” processes. Lignin binder to deliver 3D-printability; keratin/lignin biocomposite materials. Lignin as material additive manufacturing technology: 3D and 4D printed responsive materials without the need for synthetic chemical modifications | [293] |
Granular dealkaline lignin/corn-derived zein protein by extrusion | 3D-printed insoluble lignin granules act as a binder for enhanced printability and degradation in soil. Suitable biocomposites for 3D printing manufacturing biodegradable circuit boards are used, along with inexpensive industrial byproducts lignin and zein as precursors and benign solvents, such as ethanol and water | [294] |
Poly(caprolactone)/lignin/loaded curcumin | 3D-printed dressings; antioxidant and antimicrobial activities | [286] |
Carboxylated lignin/polylactic acid melt mixing; | Suitable biocomposites for 3D printing via fused deposition modeling (FDM); improved interfacial adhesion between the COOH-lignin surface and PLA matrix; reduced cost of printing PLA 3D filaments without changing their thermal and mechanical properties | [295] |
Lignin-coated cellulose nanocrystal/methacrylate composites | 3D stereolithography printing; mechanical reinforcement and thermal stabilization | [276] |
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Vasile, C.; Baican, M. Lignins as Promising Renewable Biopolymers and Bioactive Compounds for High-Performance Materials. Polymers 2023, 15, 3177. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15153177
Vasile C, Baican M. Lignins as Promising Renewable Biopolymers and Bioactive Compounds for High-Performance Materials. Polymers. 2023; 15(15):3177. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15153177
Chicago/Turabian StyleVasile, Cornelia, and Mihaela Baican. 2023. "Lignins as Promising Renewable Biopolymers and Bioactive Compounds for High-Performance Materials" Polymers 15, no. 15: 3177. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15153177