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Editorial

Crystallization of High Performance Metallic Materials (2nd Edition)

by
Chao Chen
1,* and
Wangzhong Mu
2,3,*
1
College of Materials Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China
2
Key Laboratory of Electromagnetic Processing of Materials (Ministry of Education), School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
3
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Brinellvägen 23, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Crystals 2025, 15(11), 995; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst15110995
Submission received: 14 November 2025 / Accepted: 14 November 2025 / Published: 18 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crystallization of High Performance Metallic Materials (2nd Edition))
Versions Notes

1. Introduction

Crystallization generally refers to the material processing in which a solid phase nucleates within a liquid or solid matrix. In metallic materials, crystallization encompasses both the nucleation and growth of a new solid phase during initial solidification and the subsequent solid-state phase transformations [1].
With the rapid development of electric vehicle (EV) technologies [2], the demand for non-oriented silicon steel is steadily rising due to its widespread use in new energy EV drive motors [3,4]. Research on the manufacturing processes of non-oriented silicon steels has become a hot topic [5,6,7,8]. In this Special Issue (SI), three contributed papers (Contributions 3, 4, and 9) [9,10,11] focus specifically on this subject. These studies investigate the influence of annealing temperature and cold rolling reduction rate on the microstructure, texture, and magnetic properties of non-oriented silicon steel [9,10]. Another active research area concerns the addition of rare earth elements into non-oriented silicon steels [11,12,13,14,15,16,17], with one study in this issue examining inclusions throughout the production and smelting processes [11]. In relation to rare earth additions, this SI also includes a paper (Contribution 3) on the effect of erbium addition in aluminum alloys [18,19].
Stainless steel represents another important class of high-performance metallic materials [20,21,22,23,24,25]. In this Special Issue, one paper (Contribution 8) focuses on the plastic deformation behavior of AISI 304 stainless steel [26,27,28,29,30,31]. Another study (Contribution 10) investigates laser cladding of AISI 904L stainless steel and Co-based composite coatings [32,33,34]. Continuous casting and solidification of stainless steel remain challenging processes [35,36,37,38,39]; accordingly, a further paper in this SI (Contribution 6) examines key parameters in the continuous casting of steel [40,41,42,43,44].
This SI also covers the topic of crystal plasticity [45,46,47,48,49,50], which is reviewed in Contribution 1 [51]. Additionally, Contribution 7 presents a modeling study on the sealing performance and fatigue behavior of sealing rings made by Inconel 718 alloy [52]. Separately, a review paper (Contribution 2) systematically summarizes recent advances in enhancing the antibacterial properties [53,54] of magnesium alloys through alloying strategies [55].
Followed by the first edition of SI Crystallization of High Performance Metallic Materials [1]. This Special Issue explores crystallization behaviors in various high-performance metallic materials. It compiles comprehensive research on these behaviors, aiming to elucidate the correlations between processing, structure, and properties in engineering materials.

2. An Overview of Published Articles

This Special Issue attracted a number of submissions on crystallization behaviors in metallic alloys. Ten high-quality papers were accepted after the peer-review process. The contributions and their descriptions are listed in Table 1.
Contribution 1 provides a concise review of crystal plasticity (CP), tracing its progress from conceptual origins to its current applications. It establishes CP as a validated methodology for simulating complex material responses under demanding loading conditions. Acknowledging ongoing model development, the review highlights parameter calibration as a primary challenge for physics-based simulations and offers valuable data tables with indicative values to guide this process.
Contribution 2 summarizes recent advances in enhancing the antibacterial properties of magnesium alloys via alloying. It details the efficacy of various alloy systems and elaborates on the underlying mechanisms. This work is anticipated to furnish a foundational basis for designing novel biodegradable magnesium alloys with integrated antibacterial functions, thereby accelerating their clinical adoption.
Contribution 3 examines the impact of trace erbium (Er) additions on the microstructure and mechanical properties of 2024 aluminum alloy. Utilizing powder metallurgy techniques, for example, high-energy ball milling, cold isostatic pressing and microwave sintering and characterization via optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), this study offers relevant insights for developing high-performance aluminum alloys targeted for automotive structural components.
Contribution 4 studied the cold-rolled non-oriented silicon steel sheets with a Si content of 2.4 wt.%, which was produced by continuous and reversible cold rolling. The influence of annealing temperature on the microstructure, texture, and magnetic properties were studied by optical microscopy, an X-ray diffractometer, and a magnetic property measuring instrument.
Contribution 5 focused on the 3.0%Si-0.8%Al-0.3%Mn non-oriented silicon steel. This paper performed a X-ray diffraction (XRD) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) study on the effects of cold rolling reduction on the microstructure, recrystallization behavior, and magnetic properties of the silicon steel. With the reduction rates of 78%, 85% and 87% in the cold rolled sheet, noting narrowed deformation bands, fewer shear bands, and increased grain boundary fractions, which collectively govern recrystallization and magnetic performance.
Contribution 6 employs a 3D numerical model to analyze how casting speed, argon injection flow rate, and mold flux properties govern fluid flow and heat transfer in a continuous casting mold. It proposes an optimized set of parameters to stabilize these phenomena, thereby reducing slab defects and enhancing process stability.
Contribution 7 analyzes the sealing performance and fatigue behavior of W-shaped metallic seals with different microstructures. It introduces an innovative simulation technique that uses temperature conduction to model gradient structures, mitigating interface stress concentration in finite element modeling (FEM) analysis. The findings inform the design and manufacturing process optimization for high-performance sealing rings.
Contribution 8 probes the effects of plastic deformation and temperature on strain-induced martensite formation and associated hardening in AISI 304 stainless steel. It confirms the transformation sequence γ → ε → α′, with accelerated kinetics at lower temperatures and higher strains, providing a basis for tailoring mechanical properties through thermomechanical processing.
Contribution 9 tracks the evolution of inclusion morphology, composition, and size distribution during the industrial production of 3.1% Si non-oriented silicon steel. The study demonstrates that rare earth treatment effectively modifies Al2O3 inclusions into REAlO3 and RE2O2S types and promotes the aggregation of AlN to form composite inclusions.
Contribution 10 employed the laser cladding technology to enhance and restore component surfaces, thereby contributing to extended service life. In this work, single-layer and multi-layer Co-based composite coatings reinforced with WC–CoCr–Ni powder were deposited onto AISI 904L stainless steel substrates via laser cladding. The phase composition of the fabricated coatings was analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD), while the microstructure and elemental distribution were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Further evaluations were conducted to determine the hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion behavior of the coatings. Analysis and comparison revealed that coating performance improved with increasing thickness, which was generally attributed to a reduced iron (Fe) content within the coating microstructure.

3. Summary

This current Special Issue (SI) collects research contributions with the topics of solidification and continuous casting, crystal plasticity and recrystallization during deformation, laser cladding of the composite coatings, and non-metallic inclusions as well as mechanical properties evolution of different engineering materials, e.g., non-oriented silicon steels, stainless steels, Inconel alloys, aluminum alloys, etc. Both experimental and simulation studies with the crystallization topics have been reported in different papers. In addition, two review articles on crystal plasticity and antibacterial properties of magnesium alloys are presented in this issue. A third Volume of the SI with the same topic is online now. https://www.mdpi.com/journal/crystals/special_issues/75042MN87Z (accessed on 13 November 2025). It is aiming to collect more contributions regarding different topics of crystallization of materials.

Author Contributions

Writing—original draft preparation, C.C.; writing—review and editing, W.M. and C.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments

C.C. and W.M. would like to acknowledge all the authors, the anonymous reviewers, and the Special Issue editor.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

List of Contributions

  • Loukadakis, V.; Papaefthymiou, S. Advancements in and Applications of Crystal Plasticity Modelling of Metallic Materials. Crystals 2024, 14, 883. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14100883.
  • Song, Q.; Yang, L.; Yi, F.; Chen, C.; Guo, J.; Qi, Z.; Song, Y. Antibacterial Pure Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys for Biomedical Materials—A Review. Crystals 2024, 14, 939. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14110939.
  • Qin, T.; Fan, B.; Yu, J.; Bu, C.; Zhang, J. Effect of Erbium Micro-Additions on Microstructures and Properties of 2024 Aluminum Alloy Prepared by Microwave Sintering. Crystals 2024, 14, 382. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14040382.
  • Shao, K.; Niu, Y.; Pei, Y.; Qiao, J.; Pan, H.; Wang, H. Effects of Continuous Rolling and Reversible Rolling on 2.4% Si Non-Oriented Silicon Steel. Crystals 2024, 14, 824. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14090824.
  • Guo, F.; Niu, Y.; Fu, B.; Qiao, J.; Qiu, S. Influence Mechanisms of Cold Rolling Reduction Rate on Microstructure, Texture and Magnetic Properties of Non-Oriented Silicon Steel. Crystals 2024, 14, 853. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14100853.
  • Ding, Z.; Wang, C.; Wang, X.; Xiao, P.; Zhu, L.; Wang, S. The Influence of Process and Slag Parameters on the Liquid Slag Layer in Continuous Casting Mold for Large Billets. Crystals 2025, 15, 388. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst15050388.
  • Zhao, P.; Tuo, L.; Zhang, H.; Sun, Z.; Ren, S.; Yuan, G.; Zheng, Z. Analysis of Fatigue Performance of Metallic Components with Gradient Microstructures. Crystals 2025, 15, 602. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst15070602.
  • Burja, J.; Lindič, J.; Šetina Batič, B.; Nagode, A. Temperature-Dependent Martensitic Transformation in Cold-Rolled AISI 304 Stainless Steel. Crystals 2025, 15, 652. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst15070652.
  • Xue, L.; Li, X.; Wang, T.; Zhao, Q.; Wang, H.; Wang, J.; Lin, W.; Niu, X.; Mu, W.; Chen, C. Analysis of Inclusions in the Entire Smelting Process of High-Grade Rare Earth Non-Oriented Silicon Steel. Crystals 2025, 15, 779. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst15090779.
  • Anghel, I.-M.; Pascu, A.; Hulka, I.; Woelk, D.H.; Uțu, I.-D.; Mărginean, G. Characterization of Cobalt-Based Composite Multilayer Laser-Cladded Coatings. Crystals 2025, 15, 970. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst15110970.

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Table 1. Summary of the published contributions.
Table 1. Summary of the published contributions.
No. of ContributionResearch AreaFocusType of Research
1Crystal plasticityApplications and challengesReview paper
2Magnesium alloyAntibacterial effect and mechanismReview paper
3Erbium added 2024 aluminum alloyMicrostructures and mechanical propertiesExperimental study
42.4% Si non-oriented silicon steelEffects of annealing temperature on the microstructure, texture, and magnetic propertiesExperimental study
53.0%Si-0.8%Al-0.3%Mn non-oriented silicon steelEffects of cold rolling reduction rate on microstructure, texture and magnetic propertiesExperimental study
6SFQ590 steel and continuous casting mold slagEffects of casting speed, argon injection rate, and mold flux properties on the fluid flow and heat transferComputational fluid dynamics study
7W-shaped metallic sealing rings by Inconel 718Modeling on the sealing performance and fatigue behaviorNumerical model
study
8Cold-Rolled AISI 304 Stainless SteelEffect of plastic deformation and temperature on the formation of mechanically induced martensite and hardnessExperimental study
93.1% Si non-oriented silicon steel with addition of rare earththe morphology, composition, and size distribution of inclusions throughout the smelting processExperimental study and thermodynamics calculation
10AISI 904L stainless steel and Co-based composite coatingsLaser cladding of the composite coatingsExperimental study
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Chen, C.; Mu, W. Crystallization of High Performance Metallic Materials (2nd Edition). Crystals 2025, 15, 995. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst15110995

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Chen C, Mu W. Crystallization of High Performance Metallic Materials (2nd Edition). Crystals. 2025; 15(11):995. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst15110995

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Chen, Chao, and Wangzhong Mu. 2025. "Crystallization of High Performance Metallic Materials (2nd Edition)" Crystals 15, no. 11: 995. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst15110995

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Chen, C., & Mu, W. (2025). Crystallization of High Performance Metallic Materials (2nd Edition). Crystals, 15(11), 995. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst15110995

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