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Review

A Mini-Review of Recent Progress in Zeolite-Based Catalysts for Photocatalytic or Photothermal Environmental Pollutant Treatment

by
Shenhao Zhang
1,†,
Le Xu
1,†,
Jie Xu
2,* and
Boxiong Shen
1,2,*
1
School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, China
2
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work and should be considered as co-first authors.
Catalysts 2025, 15(2), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15020158
Submission received: 31 December 2024 / Revised: 6 February 2025 / Accepted: 7 February 2025 / Published: 9 February 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Catalysis on Zeolites and Zeolite-Like Materials, 3rd Edition)
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Abstract

:
Atmospheric and water pollution has led to serious harm to the global environment and human health. Photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis technologies have been considered as promising methods to handle pollutants in the atmosphere and water due to their energy savings and environmental friendliness. Zeolite catalysts have been widely used in the field of photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic removal of environmental pollutants due to their well-developed pore structure, high stability, and tunable surface chemistry. In this review, we have elaborated the photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic mechanisms and summarized the recent progress in zeolite-based catalysts for photocatalytic or photothermal catalytic environmental pollutant treatment. In summary, it is found that the strategies of elemental doping and surface structure modification directly affect the adsorption performance of zeolite for target pollutants, and the construction of a bifunctional structure promotes the generation of intrinsic active species and photogenerated charge separation. Finally, the paper presents current challenges and perspectives on zeolite-based catalysts for photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic treatment of environmental pollutants.

1. Introduction

With the advancement and development of industrialization, the issue of global environmental pollution has intensified, with excessive emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere and water environments, leading to a severe threat to the global ecosystem and human health. Consequently, developing an appropriate and effective treatment strategy has emerged as an imperative priority [1,2]. Water pollutants, including organic dyes, heavy metals, and other pollutants, mainly come from industrial and agricultural wastewater. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which have been regarded as some of the main atmospheric pollutants, mainly come from automobile exhaust, industrial waste gases, and synthetic materials [3]. Therefore, the treatment of water pollutants and VOCs is urgently needed [4]. The current technologies for treating water pollutants and VOCs include traditional adsorption, photocatalytic oxidation, plasma technology, catalytic combustion, advanced oxidation, membrane separation technology, and biological methods [5]. Therein, the utilization of solar energy to realize pollutant degradation and purification, which has been regarded as a promising treatment strategy, has the advantages of cleanliness, energy savings, and environmental friendliness. Therefore, photocatalytic technology has attracted much attention for pollutant degradation under mild conditions with low operating costs [6]. In recent years, in order to strengthen the degradation effect of photocatalytic technology, photothermal catalytic technology had been proposed. Combining the characteristics of photocatalysis and thermal catalysis, photothermal synergistic catalytic technology could effectively avoid the problems of needing a large external energy supply and low degradation efficiency, and it recently has become a research hotspot [7,8].
However, since pollutant molecules in the atmosphere and water are often complex and difficult to deeply oxidize, it is important to develop novel and efficient catalysts for photocatalysis or photothermal catalysis [9]. Currently, common catalysts include metal oxides, precious metal catalysts, semiconductor materials, carbon-based materials, metal-organic frameworks, and zeolite [10]. Non-zeolite carrier catalysts have good light absorption ability for photothermal catalysis, effectively absorbing light energy and using UV or visible light to excite electron–hole pairs to promote catalytic reactions.
Therein, zeolites are a class of microporous materials with a regular pore structure that are usually composed of silicon, aluminum, oxygen, and metal elements. The pore size and shape of zeolite can be precisely controlled, which allows it to selectively adsorb pollutant molecules [11]. Zeolite catalysts have significant advantages in the field of photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic degradation of environmental pollutants due to their well-developed pore structure, high stability, and tunable surface chemistry [12,13]. Based on the differences in the pore structure of zeolites, the common catalysts can be categorized as A-type [14], X-type [15], Y-type [16], β-type [17], mordenite zeolite [18], ZSM-5 zeolite [19], and USY zeolite [20]. As shown in Table 1, the well-developed pore structure always endows zeolite with a high specific surface area (200–1000 m2/g), and the adsorption performance is not hindered when the pore size of zeolite is larger than that of the adsorbed molecules. Due to the different combinations of the basic unit in zeolite, the significant difference in the pore structure and size greatly influences the adsorption performance [21,22], and the selection of a suitable zeolite is very important for different catalytic reactions [8,23].
At present, although considerable research about the application of zeolite for photocatalytic degradation of environmental pollutants has been reported, reviews focused on zeolite in the photothermal catalytic degradation of pollutants are still scarce, and a comprehensive review to summarize the recent progress in zeolite-based catalysts in the field of photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis is lacking. Accordingly, this review briefly outlines photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic theory, the modification strategies of zeolite for catalytic reactions, and research progress in the photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic degradation of pollutants in the atmosphere and water environments. This work provides a summary for the application of zeolite-based catalysts in photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis, which can guide catalyst design in the future.

2. Principles of Photocatalysis and Photothermal Catalysis

2.1. Principle of Photocatalysis

The basic principle of photocatalysis (PC) is that the generated electron–hole pairs after excitation of the catalyst by light energy triggers a series of redox reactions to achieve chemical transformation (Figure 1). The photocatalytic pollutant degradation reaction on semiconductors mainly includes the following steps [24]: (1) Semiconductor light absorption. The semiconductor catalyst harvests the photon energy after light irradiation; (2) Formation of photogenerated electron–hole pairs. When the photon energy harvested by the semiconductor is larger than the forbidden band width (Eg) between the valence band (VB) and conduction band (CB), the electrons on the VB will absorb the energy to jump into the CB to generate photogenerated electron–hole pairs; (3) Migration of photogenerated electron–hole pairs. Photogenerated electron–hole pairs can migrate to the surface of the photocatalyst and undergo redox reactions with the pollutants adsorbed on the surface. Photogenerated electrons can be captured by O2 to generate superoxide radicals (·O2−) and photogenerated holes can be captured by H2O to generate hydroxyl radicals (·OH). These radicals can help the pollutants degrade to produce CO2 and H2O molecules [25].

2.2. Principle of Photothermal Catalysis

Photothermal catalysis (PTC) is an advanced technology that utilizes both light and thermal energy to augment the catalytic reaction, which integrates the advantages of photocatalysis (PC) and thermal catalysis (TC) to enhance catalytic performance through the photothermal synergetic effect. Photothermal catalysis can simultaneously mitigate the substantial energy consumption associated with thermal catalysis and amplify the degradation efficiency of photocatalysis. Based on a previous report [27], photothermal catalysis has been proven to be an efficient and promising technology for pollutant degradation due to its performance always greatly outperforming the linear superposition of photocatalysis and thermal catalysis. In photothermal catalysis, in addition to the photocatalytic effect, the addition of thermal energy changes the activation energy of the reaction, strengthens the oxidation processes of reactants, and promotes the desorption and release processes of the final products. Photothermal catalysis is always divided into four reaction modes: thermal-assisted photocatalysis (TAPC), photo-assisted thermal catalysis (PATC), photo-driven thermal catalysis (PDTC), and photothermal co-catalysis (PTCC) [3]. In thermal-assisted photocatalysis, light is the main driving force for catalytic reactions, while heat plays an auxiliary role to enhance the photocatalytic effect. In photo-assisted thermal catalysis, heat is the main driving force for catalytic reactions, while light is used to facilitate the thermal catalytic reaction. In current research, photo-driven thermal catalysis and photothermal co-catalysis are the main reaction modes for pollutant degradation (Figure 2) and, therefore, the principles of these two reaction modes are introduced in detail here.
Photo-induced heat is the main driving force for catalytic reactions in photo-driven thermal catalysis. Light indirectly drives thermal catalysis through the photothermal effect by raising the temperature to meet the demand of thermal catalysis rather than directly participating in the photocatalytic reaction. In this reaction mode, the required temperature for thermal catalysis is exclusively derived from the conversion of light energy on the catalyst surface. To achieve the synergistic effect in photo-driven thermal catalysis, the catalyst should meet the following requirements: (1) the catalyst should show strong absorption in the entire solar spectral region and can efficiently convert the absorbed solar energy into heat, thereby raising the temperature above the required temperature for thermal catalysis; and (2) the catalyst needs to have good thermal catalytic activity and a relatively low reaction temperature. Under suitable conditions, the activity of photo-driven thermal catalysis is always higher than that of single thermal catalysis, which can achieve an energy-saving effect and high solar utilization efficiency [27].
Light and heat are both driving forces for catalytic reactions in photothermal co-catalysis. Light directly drives photocatalysis and heat directly drives thermal catalysis, while the synergistic effect of light and heat can achieve higher activity than the sum of photocatalysis and thermal catalysis. In this reaction mode, the catalyst should simultaneously possess photocatalytic and thermal catalytic activities, which is the key point for successful application of photothermal co-catalytic technology. By reasonably designing a catalyst with optimal activity and stability under photothermal co-catalytic conditions, this technology can not only increase the reaction rate but also enhance product selectivity, which allows the catalyst to exhibit superhigh performance beyond that of single photocatalysis or thermal catalysis in specific reactions.

3. Modification Strategies for Zeolite Catalysts

3.1. Construction of Bifunctional Catalysts

Construction of bifunctional catalysts is an efficient strategy to improve the catalytic activity of zeolite, which is aimed at integrating multiple active sites into a monolithic catalyst to achieve directional acceleration of different reaction steps. The key to this strategy lies in methods such as metal or metal oxide loading of zeolite catalysts and enhancement of acidic sites, so that multiple catalytic functions can be achieved simultaneously on the overall catalyst.
Guo et al. first prepared the specific precursor by activating hydroxyl radicals under UV irradiation, as in the aging process, and then a bifunctional composite of UV-CDs/Zeolite-4A/TiO2 with adsorption-photocatalytic functions was prepared by a hydrothermal method (Figure 3), which showed a removal efficiency of 90.63% for methylene blue within 90 min. After five consecutive tests (7.5 h), the methylene blue decolorization rate of UV-CZT still reached 82.94%, demonstrating a long service life [28]. Tang et al. combined hydrophilic {001} TiO2 nanosheets with hydrophobic NaY zeolite to prepare a TiO2@HYZ bifunctional photocatalyst, which achieved spatial separation of the catalytic center and adsorption center and could achieve high photocatalytic degradation activity toward gaseous toluene under UV irradiation (Figure 4), with a removal rate of 96.6% and a mineralization efficiency of 87.4% within 120 min. The characterization results showed that the combination of HYZ and TiO2 into a bifunctional catalyst enhanced the adsorption of toluene by HYZ and facilitated the efficient separation of photoexcited carriers on TiO2. The deposition of degradation intermediates over active sites was also avoided and the mineralization performance was improved. Significant decreases in toluene removal and CO2 yield were observed for pristine TiO2 after five photodegradation cycles (12 h), indicating that it incurred severe deactivation. Meanwhile, the color of pristine TiO2 generally changed from white to dark brown, implying that a certain amount of intermediates from toluene mineralization accumulated on its surface. Unlike for pristine TiO2, the toluene removal efficiency and CO2 yield of TiO2@HYZ were constant at roughly 96.8% and 211.5 μmol/L, respectively, after five cycles, and its surface remained white. This indicated that TiO2@HYZ showed better photocatalytic durability than pristine TiO2 owing to the incorporation of HYZ [29]. Zakaria et al. used zeolite nanoclay (ZNC) and constructed Cu/WO3−x@ZNC bifunctional composites by hydrothermal and ball milling methods for efficient photocatalytic degradation of ciprofloxacin (CIP) and photothermal desalination of water (Figure 5). Under IR and visible irradiation, the CIP degradation efficiencies reached 88.3% and 81.7%, respectively, while the evaporation efficiencies of water reached 97.5% and 72.8%, respectively. After three full cycles (3 h), the composite showed good photocatalytic reusability [30]. Sacco et al. developed an adsorption-photocatalytic method to remove caffeine by loading ZnO on the surface of commercial zeolite particles (ZnO/ZEO), which exhibited high catalytic activity in adsorption/photocatalytic processes. The characterization results showed that ZnO nanoparticles loaded on the surface of ZEO were in the fibrillated zincite phase, which was mainly present in the mesoporous structure of ZEO. The experimental results showed that the ZnO/ZEO particles of the constructed bifunctional catalyst removed 60% of caffeine in 120 min under dark conditions and up to 100% of caffeine under UV irradiation [31].
Based on the above studies, the strategy of constructing bifunctional catalysts using zeolite can simultaneously facilitate multistage reaction steps and significantly diminish the conversion barrier of intermediates, thereby enhancing the holistic reaction efficiency. Meanwhile, the precise regulation of reaction pathways can be achieved to selectively obtain the desired transformed products.

3.2. Elemental Doping

Elemental doping is an efficient strategy to improve the physical, chemical, or electrical properties of zeolite through the addition of a quantitative elemental precursor during catalyst synthesis. In the field of photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis, metal doping is particularly important for improving the activity of zeolite because it provides emerging active sites for surface reactions. By accurately controlling the type, amount, and distribution of doped metal, the catalytic performance can be optimized to obtain excellent activity in catalytic reactions.
Hu et al. used titanium-containing blast furnace slag as the raw material and promoted transfer of the Ti element to the NaZSM-5 molecular sieve by a hydrothermal method to realize the successful doping of metal Ti into zeolite. The synthesized Ti-NaZSM-5 composite catalysts contained a backbone of tetrahedrally coordinated Ti species and amorphous exo-backbone Ti species and exhibited a high degradation efficiency of 100% for methyl orange under UV irradiation [32]. Ke et al. loaded Ag-doped Y-type zeolite (Ag@Y) on the surface of an alumina nanofiber membrane by a wet chemical method for visible light-driven photocatalysis (Figure 6). The integrated membrane could maintain a large flux of 200 Lm−2 h−1 bar−1 and a stable transmittance selectivity of 85% during the photocatalytic degradation of dyes. Meanwhile, the degradation efficiency of methylene blue could reach about 40% within 60 min [33]. Elimian et al. introduced noble metal Pt species into the USY molecular sieve to achieve metal doping by a sol-gel method. The enhanced oxygen vacancy and Ti3+ species could improve the light absorption of the catalyst, and the prepared Pt-mTiO2/USY nanocomposites were used for photo-driven thermal catalytic toluene oxidation (Figure 7). The composite catalysts could obtain a maximum toluene conversion of 86.6% and a CO2 formation of 74.5% when the mass fraction of Pt was 0.9 wt.% [34].
Based on the above studies, element doping can significantly enhance the catalytic activity of zeolite in photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis. The introduced metal species can expand the light absorption range of the catalyst and improve the charge separation efficiency. Meanwhile, element doping can provide suitable active sites for catalytic reactions and strengthen the adsorption performance of pollutant molecules, thereby improving the catalytic reaction rate and selectivity. The introduced metal species can intensify the photothermal effect on catalytic reactions, promote the generation of various intermediates, and reduce the reaction energy barrier.

3.3. Structural Modification of Catalysts

Structural modification of zeolite includes the adjustment and optimization of atomic arrangement, crystal structure, pore structure, and active sites on the catalyst. By modifying the structure of zeolite catalysts by physical, chemical, or physicochemical methods, the catalytic reaction activity, selectivity, and stability can be significantly improved for efficient pollutant removal.
Alakhras et al. used zeolite and prepared Zeo-TiO2 and Zeo-ZnO composite photocatalysts by a co-precipitation method for photocatalytic degradation of RhB dye under UV light. The TiO2 nanoparticles were fully encapsulated on natural zeolite with a uniform spherical structure, while the ZnO nanoparticles were not fully encapsulated on the zeolite with the irregular block shape. In photocatalysis, superoxide radicals (·O2−) and hydroxyl radicals (·OH) played dominant roles in the degradation of RhB dye, while the contribution of holes (h+) was negligible (Figure 8). The results showed that Zeo-TiO2 exhibited a degradation efficiency of 100% for RhB dye with 80 min, while Zeo-ZnO only exhibited a degradation efficiency of 81% for RhB dye. The Zeo-TiO2 catalyst retained almost the same performance with a very small activity loss, and the degradation efficiency after five cycles (400 min) was 93.8%, which indicated good recycling stability. Meanwhile, the degradation rate of RhB by the Zeo-ZnO catalyst was decreased significantly with increasing number of reuse times, and the degradation efficiency obtained after five successive cycles of degradation tests was 50.15%. The large reduction in photocatalytic efficiency may have been caused by the unavoidable desilication of the zinc oxide mass into the surface of zeolite tuff during the washing process [35]. Vaiano et al. introduced MoOx as a functionalized component into magnesia-alkali zeolite by an ion exchange method. The formed polymetallic species on the catalyst surface could improve reaction selectivity by changing the surface structure and the distribution of active sites, which obtained a high selectivity of 80% in the degradation reaction of benzene [36]. Liu et al. used fly ash as the raw material to prepare honeycomb ZnO nanospheres on porous zeolite material to obtain a high specific surface area and photocatalytic performance. The composite catalysts showed high photocatalytic activity, with a degradation efficiency of 90% for methylene blue dye in water under UV irradiation within 30 min. The characterization results showed that the methylene blue molecules were first adsorbed on the surface of the ZnO spheres and outside or inside the zeolite, while the photocatalytic degradation process occurred on the surface of the ZnO spheres. When the concentration of methylene blue molecules on the surface of the ZnO spheres gradually decreased, the methylene blue molecules on the zeolite were transferred to the surface of the ZnO spheres, which played an important role in the degradation process [37]. Znad et al. prepared TiO2/ZSM-5 photocatalysts by a direct template technology for MO dye mineralization in the wastewater. The multilayer structure of TiO2/ZSM-5 with a high specific surface area (SBET) of 1151 m2 g−1 was beneficial to light utilization in multiple internal spaces. The catalyst showed a high degradation efficiency of 99.55% and mineralization efficiency of 99% for MO dye within 180 min under solar irradiation [38].
Based on the above studies, structural modifications can tailor the intrinsic architecture of catalysts to provide more reactive sites and expedite the pollutant degradation rate. The reaction pathway can also be orchestrated to enhance product selectivity when handling a specific contaminant. The catalytic stability and structural framework can be improved to avoid impurity adsorption and enhance resistance to poisoning conditions. These properties can preclude the activity decline of zeolite in complex environments as much as possible and promote the deep eradication of pollutants.

4. Advances in Zeolite-Based Catalysts for Photocatalytic/Photothermal Pollutant Treatment

4.1. Photocatalytic and Photothermal Catalytic Degradation of VOCs

Photocatalytic degradation of VOCs can efficiently and selectively convert VOCs into harmless substances under ambient conditions, as well as having low energy consumption, ease of operation, and sustainability. The photocatalytic degradation efficiencies of several zeolite composite catalysts for VOCs removal are summarized in Table 2. The application of zeolite can greatly enhance the conversion efficiency of various VOCs under light illumination, exhibiting potential for the construction of composite catalysts for photocatalytic VOCs degradation. Photothermal catalytic VOC degradation can efficiently improve the reaction rate and selectivity by raising the reaction temperature via the photothermal synergistic effect, decreasing the activation energy barrier of the reaction, and overcoming thermodynamic limitations. Therefore, photothermal catalysis breaks the bottlenecks of low catalytic efficiency and limited mass transfer in photocatalysis and decreases energy consumption in thermal catalysis. The degradation efficiencies of several zeolite composites in photothermal catalysis for VOC removal ae summarized in Table 3. The zeolite composite catalysts exhibit high VOC conversion efficiency and CO2 selectivity under photothermal conditions.
Improving the adsorption performance and increasing the reactive species in the reaction are the key points in VOC degradation for zeolite catalysts. Surface modification, optimization of regeneration conditions, and regulation of pore size are the main methods to improve the adsorption performance of zeolite. Kim et al. constructed a practical-scale photocatalytic air purifier using TiO2/H-ZSM-5 composite as the filter to remove indoor VOCs under UV illumination. The TiO2/H-ZSM-5 composite exhibited stable photocatalytic performance and could significantly remove various VOCs, including formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and toluene. H-ZSM-5 zeolite provided the adsorption sites to strengthen the adsorption of VOCs, which accelerated the photocatalytic conversion of VOCs to CO2 over the TiO2 photocatalyst. In addition, due to its strong adsorption capacity, the composite filter completely prevented the formation of formaldehyde from the oxidation of toluene. The regeneration and durability tests also proved the sustainability of this composite filter for VOC removal [44]. Javier et al. prepared TiO2/nano-zeolite composites through two different synthesis methods: adding pre-synthesized zeolite into a TiO2 precursor and adding pre-synthesized TiO2 into a ZSM-5 zeolite precursor. The experimental results indicated that introducing zeolite into a TiO2 precursor to prepare TiO2/nano-zeolite composite could obtain high photocatalytic activity for propylene degradation, which was attributed to the excellent adsorption property for propylene molecules [39]. Kovalevskiy et al. loaded TiO2 on the surface of zeolite to construct a composite catalyst for the photocatalytic degradation of ethanol. The presence of zeolite greatly increased the adsorption capacity of the composite catalyst and prevented the desorption and release of intermediates during the photocatalytic reaction. Therefore, the TiO2/zeolite catalyst significantly suppressed the secondary contamination of harmful intermediates [45]. Ma et al. used MFI zeolite as the support for the loading of active FeOx nanoparticles to prepare FeOx/ZSM-5 and FeOx/S-1 (Silicate-I) catalysts (Figure 9), which achieved n-butane conversion efficiencies of 70.5% and 70.8%, respectively. The FeOx/ZSM-5 catalyst also achieved efficient acetophenone oxidation, with a yield of 13.0 mmol molFe−1 h−1. In the reaction process, FeOx species acted as the active components and zeolite efficiently trapped N-hydroxyl molecules in the pore channel, which accelerated the generation of N-oxygen radicals for the oxidation reaction [48]. Improving the adsorption performance of zeolite can bring multiple advantages for catalytic reactions, including the precise enrichment of reactants and exclusion of impurities by selective adsorption and the enhancement of light utilization efficiency and thermal catalytic activity.
Table 3. The photothermal catalytic oxidation performance of different catalysts for VOCs.
Table 3. The photothermal catalytic oxidation performance of different catalysts for VOCs.
CatalystVOCVOC ConcentrationCatalyst Mass (mg)Temperature (°C)Optical Density (mW/cm2)Water Vapor (vol.%)Conversion (%)CO2 Selectivity (%)SBET (m2/g)Average Pore Size (nm)Reference
0.93%Pt-mTiO2/USYToluene20030243490586.674.5487.62.3[34]
CuOx-CeO2−x-STO/USYToluene200302277001086.276.6404.65.4[49]
20%CuOx-WOx/mTiO2−x-USYToluene20030235500590.482380.87.99[50]
Reactive species, intermediates that are highly active in photocatalytic and photothermal reactions, can rapidly participate in redox reaction processes. Wei et al. prepared a N-TiO2/zeolite composite catalyst with a porous structure by loading TiO2 doped with N element on the surface of the Ca-5A molecular sieve, which exhibited high photocatalytic activity for toluene degradation, with a removal efficiency of 96.7%. The strong absorption of UV–visible light and the abundant surface hydroxyl groups greatly promoted the photocatalytic degradation process [51]. Sastre et al. prepared β-zeolites containing internal silanol groups for photocatalytic methane conversion to C1 products (methanol, formaldehyde, and formic acid) at room temperature, and the selectivity for these products exceeded 95%. The surface property of zeolite greatly affected the conversion efficiency, and the all-silica β-zeolite prepared in OH− water medium exhibited the highest photocatalytic activity and selectivity due to the existence of abundant internal silanol groups [52]. Hao et al. prepared Cu-MOR/g-C3N4 composite catalysts by four methods (liquid-phase ion exchange, equivalent-volume impregnation, solid-state ion exchange, and hydrothermal method), and compared their photothermal catalytic activity for methane oxidation. The catalyst prepared by liquid-phase ion exchange showed the highest activity, with a methanol yield of 3.09 µmol h−1 gcat−1 at 200 °C under visible light irradiation. The strong interaction between CuxOy and g-C3N4 decreased the interfacial charge transfer resistance, and the interface provided a large number of active sites to improve the photocatalytic activity [53]. Elimian et al. designed CuO-CeO2 bimetallic oxides on USY zeolite by an impregnation method for photothermal catalytic oxidation of toluene. The optimized composite catalyst achieved a toluene conversion efficiency of 86.2% and CO2 yield of 76.6% within 90 min. The interaction between CuOx and CeO2−x on the surface of USY zeolite increased the concentration of oxygen species, which was responsible for the improvement in catalytic oxidation activity [49]. Whang et al. prepared a Cu/Ti-ZSM-5 composite catalyst by hydrothermal and ion exchange methods for photothermal catalytic conversion of methane to methanol. The characterization results showed that Ti species were introduced into the skeleton of ZSM-5 in the form of TiO4, which acted as a photo absorber and effectively prevented pore clogging (Figure 10). Under optimal conditions, the catalyst could achieve a methanol yield of 67.41 µmol h−1 gcat−1 with a selectivity of 92%. Cu species were introduced into the pore channel of ZSM-5 to form CuxOy and acted as the active sites to obtain excellent catalytic activity and stability in the reaction process [54]. Elimian et al. prepared yCuOx-WOx/mTiO2−x-USY composite catalyst by an impregnation method (Figure 11) and improved the photothermal catalytic toluene degradation efficiency to 90.4% by changing the Cu loading content. The synergistic effect of CuOx and WOx promoted the activation of molecular oxygen and the migration of oxygen species, which accelerated the oxidation of toluene and intermediates and improved the photothermal catalytic activity. There were no significant decreases in the toluene conversion and CO2 yield after 10 cycles, with each cycle lasting for 90 min, although the toluene conversion decreased slightly in the presence of water vapor. The above results suggested that 20CuOx-WOx/mTiO2−x-USY exhibited good catalytic stability [50]. The increase in active reactive species can accelerate the redox process, improve reaction selectivity, and facilitate the energy transformation, thereby resulting in a prominent enhancement in catalytic activity.

4.2. Application of Photocatalysis and Photothermal Catalysis in Water Treatment

With the assistance of zeolite, photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic technologies can effectively decompose pollutants in water, such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, benzene compounds, and organic dyes. Typically, deposition of the active phase leads to a decrease in the specific surface area and pore volume. However, when the catalytic material is loaded onto a suitable zeolite, the specific surface area and pore volume are not significantly increased, but the dispersion of active components can be improved through its high specific surface area and regular microporous structure, thus increasing the catalytic activity. The degradation performance of several zeolite composite catalysts for water pollutants are summarized in Table 4. The introduction of zeolite can enhance the conversion efficiency of water pollutants (organic dyes or heavy metals) under light irradiation, exhibiting the potential for wastewater treatment.
Inhibition of photogenerated charge recombination is a key point for wastewater treatment, which can be achieved by designing a suitable energy band structure, constructing a heterojunction, and adding co-catalysts into the system. Ghribi et al. prepared a NiO/zeolite catalyst for the photocatalytic degradation of malachite green dye in aqueous solution. The catalyst showed a high degradation efficiency of 83% and photogenerated electrons and holes could be effectively separated after the combination of NiO and zeolite [55]. Foroughi et al. used 4A molecular sieves loaded with nano-WO3 and CuO to construct Z-type heterojunctions of 4A/WO3/CuO by a hydrothermal method, and the charge recombination was obviously inhibited after formation of the heterojunctions. The catalyst showed high photocatalytic degradation efficiencies of 99.12% and 97.24% for methyl orange and indigo carmine dyes, respectively. The performance of the 4A/WO3/CuO catalyst remained above 90% for up to 6 cycles of reuse. This indicated the stability of the catalyst structure and its effective performance in degrading the targeted dyes [77]. Haq et al. combined Ag3PO4 with linde A-type zeolite by hydrothermal and wet chemical methods to form the Ag3PO4@Al2O3-A composite catalyst for photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue dye. The zeolite provided a large surface area for the adsorption of MB dye and Ag3PO4 acted as a visible light absorber to achieve the degradation of MB dye (Figure 12). The results showed that the catalyst achieved an MB degradation efficiency of nearly 100% within 120 min. The characterization results indicated that Ag3PO4 was responsive to visible light, while the zeolite was responsive to UV light, and the combination of the two components improved the light response range and effectively inhibited charge recombination, which was responsible for the high catalytic activity. After 5 cycles, the composite batch activity only marginally decreased. This finding demonstrated the outstanding stability and recyclability of Ag3PO4@Al2O3-A [76]. Sodha et al. prepared the graphene/ZSM-5 composite catalyst by a hydrothermal method for photocatalytic dye removal in wastewater. When the loading content of graphene was 1%, labeled with sample code GZ 1, the GZ 1 catalyst showed high degradation efficiencies for methyl orange and methylene blue due to the efficient photogenerated charge separation (Figure 13). The holes played the most important role in the photocatalytic degradation process, followed by hydroxyl radicals and electrons [65]. Gallegos et al. prepared BiOI/mordenite zeolite composites by co-precipitation and solvothermal methods under different time and temperature conditions (Figure 14) for photocatalytic caffeic acid oxidation. The optimal catalyst was obtained under 187 °C for 9 h and showed the highest degradation efficiency for caffeic acid. The presence of BiOI on the surface of mordenite zeolite promoted the generation of electron and hole pairs under light irradiation, which interacted with water and dissolved oxygen to form hydroxyl and superoxide radicals. The active oxygen species reacted with caffeic acid molecules to achieve high removal efficiency. In addition, the presence of zeolite strengthened the structural stability and inhibited the recombination of electron–hole pairs [83]. Inhibiting the recombination of photogenerated charge can significantly improve catalytic activity, promote the conversion of light energy to chemical energy, and improve catalytic stability.
Improving the adsorption performance of zeolite can also enhance photocatalytic and photothermal performance in wastewater treatment. Sun et al. prepared a TiO2/natural zeolite (Ti-ZE) catalyst from the simple hydrolysis and calcination of the TiCl4 precursor. The catalyst calcined at 500 °C maintained the original structure of zeolite with high adsorption capacity and good TiO2 crystallinity, which showed the highest photocatalytic reduction efficiency of nearly 100% for Cr(VI) within 240 min [69]. Zhao et al. designed and constructed a zeolite-chitosan-TiO2@PPy (polypyrrole) aerogel (ZCTP) solar evaporator with excellent light absorption performance. The long-running ZCTP aerogel solar evaporator could make full use of solar energy during the daytime to improve water purification efficiency. The outstanding salt resistance of the ZCTP aerogel made it perfectly stable and reusable, and it exhibited a huge potential to be used as a high-efficiency photothermal material for large-scale wastewater treatment and seawater desalination [84]. Zhao et al. constructed a TiO2/5A zeolite composite catalyst with a porous structure and large specific surface area. The catalyst showed a high degradation efficiency of 100% for hygromycin under light irradiation. The 5A molecular sieve showed a high adsorption capacity for hygromycin and prevented the particle agglomeration of TiO2, which were important for high photocatalytic activity [59]. Chen et al. used waste incineration fly ash as the raw material to synthesize an NaP1 zeolite catalyst by a modified microwave-assisted hydrothermal method for photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue (Figure 15). The methylene blue removal efficiency could reach 96% within 12 h, which was much higher than that of original fly ash (38%). This excellent photocatalytic performance was attributed to the enhanced adsorption performance due to the 10-fold increase in surface area (24.864 m2 g−1), as well as the active metal elements embedded in the zeolite structure [68]. Based on the above studies, improving the surface area and strengthening pollutant adsorption on zeolite catalysts can greatly enhance photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic activity.

4.3. Secondary Pollution

Zeolite itself has a good pore structure and strong adsorption capacity, which can effectively adsorb pollutants in water as well as VOCs and undergo photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic reactions on its surface to decompose them into harmless substances such as carbon dioxide and water [11]. Compared with conventional chemical treatments, photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic processes are usually carried out under mild conditions, avoiding side reactions that may be triggered by extreme conditions such as high temperatures and pressures, thus reducing the generation of harmful by-products [27].
Although photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic technologies have the advantages of high efficiency and environmental protection when treating pollutants and VOCs in water, they may still produce some secondary pollution problems [45]. During photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis, pollutants in water, such as organic dyes, may not be completely degraded to carbon dioxide and water, but instead intermediate products, such as small molecule organic compounds, are generated. These intermediate products may be toxic or bioaccumulative. Some intermediate products, such as aldehydes, ketones, and acids, may be produced during the photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic degradation of VOCs [29]. These intermediate products may be toxic or irritating and may further react to generate other harmful substances under certain conditions.
Tang et al. combined hydrophilic {001} TiO2 nanosheets with hydrophobic NaY zeolite to prepare a TiO2@HYZ bifunctional photocatalyst, which could achieve high photocatalytic degradation activity of gaseous toluene under UV irradiation. The carbonaceous intermediates generated from the oxidation of toluene were more strongly adsorbed on the surface of TiO2 than the substrate molecules, and so could cover the active sites. Excessive accumulation of carbon-containing intermediates can lead to reduced photocatalytic efficiency and secondary pollution. Adsorbed carbonaceous intermediates can also hinder the transmission of light and reduce the utilization of light energy by TiO2. But the incorporation of HYZ effectively inhibited the accumulation of carbonaceous intermediates and avoided catalyst deactivation [29]. Kovalevskiy et al. loaded TiO2 on the surface of zeolite to construct a composite catalyst for the photocatalytic degradation of ethanol. Zeolite, as a carrier of TiO2, greatly improved the adsorption capacity of the composite photocatalyst, thus reducing the concentration of intermediates desorbed from the surface of the photocatalyst and released into the gas phase during the PCO process. Titanium dioxide/zeolite composite photocatalysts can greatly inhibited secondary pollution by harmful intermediates [45]. Fan et al. synthesised tungsten-iron oxide molecular sieve composites with different Fe and W loadings by a wet impregnation method using NaY molecular sieves as carriers. The activity of photocatalytic degradation toward acetaldehyde and o-xylene under sunlight irradiation was investigated. It was found that some of the mineralization was to carbon dioxide and oxygenated intermediates, such as acetone and acetic acid, were formed. The accumulation of these intermediates led to a decrease in photocatalytic efficiency and secondary pollution. The zeolite acid sites adsorbed the VOCs and stabilized the intermediates, promoting their oxidation into final products [46]. Sun et al. prepared a TiO2/natural zeolite (Ti-ZE) catalyst by simple hydrolysis and calcination of the TiCl4 precursor. A portion of the electrons and holes migrated to the TiO2 surface, the electrons reduced adsorbed Cr(VI)to Cr(III), and the holes oxidized H2O to O2 and H+. Cr(III), as a reaction product, is less toxic than Cr(VI), but high concentrations are still harmful to the environment and the human body and are prone to secondary pollution [69].
In order to avoid secondary pollution, zeolite catalysts with high activity, selectivity, and stability can be developed. These catalysts are designed to efficiently degrade pollutants at lower temperatures and light intensities, while also minimizing the formation of intermediate products, thus reducing the overall environmental impact. Regulating the appropriate temperature and humidity during catalytic reactions can significantly improve catalyst activity and reaction efficiency. By optimizing these factors, the catalyst performs more effectively, leading to better reaction outcomes and higher efficiency. Too high or too low temperatures and humidity may affect the performance of the catalyst and lead to the accumulation of intermediate products. Fixing the catalyst on a suitable carrier can reduce leaching and migration of the catalyst and avoid its pollution in the environment [46]. Catalytic equipment should be regularly inspected and maintained and deactivated catalysts should be replaced in time. The treated wastewater should be further tested and treated, e.g., by filtration, adsorption, etc., to remove possible residual catalyst particles or incomplete degradation products [69].

5. Conclusions and Future Prospects

When zeolite catalysts are applied in photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic, there will be differences in energy efficiency and catalytic efficiency due to the different mecha-nisms of action of light and heat energy. The energy efficiency of photocatalysis is usually low because not all of the light energy is absorbed by the catalyst, and part of it may be reflected or dissipated. The reaction efficiency of photocatalysis is usually limited by the intensity of the light source and the available spectral range. Thermally catalyzed reactions are generally more energy efficient because the heat source can directly provide continuous heat, ensuring that the catalyst remains activated. Thermal catalysis usually exhibits high reaction efficiency, especially when the reaction requires higher temperature to overcome the energy barrier. The acidic sites and pore structure of zeolite catalysts are well represented in thermal catalysis and can promote the reaction efficiently. Photothermal catalysis combines the advantages of photocatalysis and thermal catalysis, using both a light source to excite the catalyst and an applied heat source to increase the energy of the reactants; this approach can increase the activity and efficiency of the reaction.
Zeolite catalysts exhibit long lifetimes in photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis due to their highly ordered microporous structure and good thermal stability. Different solvents also have effects on deactivation of the catalyst. The nature of the solvent affects the pore structure of the zeolite catalyst and the diffusion efficiency of the reactants. The polarity of the solvent may also affect the activity of acidic sites on the catalyst, thus affecting the lifetime of the catalyst. Impurities or reaction by-products in the solvent may also form deposits on the surface of the catalyst, leading to poisoning or deactivation of the catalyst.
Zeolite composite catalysts have been regarded as excellent materials for photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic degradation of VOCs and water pollutants. Although zeolite-based catalysts have attracted much attention due to their unique structure and excellent performance, the promotion in practical applications of zeolite-based catalysts still faces some challenges:
(1)
More reliable zeolite-based catalysts with high catalytic performance need to be developed. In order to promote the application of zeolite-based catalysts, catalysts with high catalytic activity and stability are still scarce. By optimizing the structure of zeolite, element doping, or constructing composite materials, the light absorption, electron transfer, and structural stability of catalysts can be further improved in their practical application for pollutant treatment and energy conversion. In addition, the regeneration and recycling of zeolite is also important to realize the sustainability of environmental treatment.
(2)
The role of zeolite in enhancing adsorption capacity needs to be further investigated to improve the catalytic performance, stability, and product selectivity. Improving the surface properties and pore structure of zeolites can help to enhance the adsorption capacity, which is beneficial to improving catalytic stability and selectivity for specific pollutants, thereby realizing environmental purification goals.
(3)
The mechanisms and pathways of pollutant degradation over zeolite-based catalysts should be further investigated. Although the reaction systems show good catalytic activity, understanding the degradation process, electron transfer mechanism, and detailed reaction pathway is beneficial to catalyst structure design in photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis.
(4)
Zeolite catalysts always show a narrow light absorption range and low utilization efficiency of sunlight, which limits their catalytic activity in practical applications. The regulation of band structure and enhancement of light absorption ability are beneficial to improving the generation of photogenerated charge and light-to-heat conversion ability.
(5)
The fast recombination of photogenerated charge is a serious problem that limits the photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic activity. The improvement of charge separation efficiency is important for practical applications of zeolite-based catalysts.
(6)
Studies of in situ characterizations during photocatalytic or photothermal reactions are still scarce, which restricts the in-depth understanding of the complex mechanisms in the reactions. Designing a suitable multifunctional in situ reaction cell is also important to reveal the key active species in catalytic reactions. This will help to promote the practical application of zeolite-based catalysts in photocatalytic or photothermal technologies.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.Z., L.X. and J.X.; methodology, S.Z. and L.X.; validation, L.X. and J.X.; formal analysis, L.X. and J.X.; investigation, S.Z. and L.X.; data curation, S.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, S.Z. and L.X.; writing—review and editing, S.Z., L.X. and J.X.; supervision, J.X. and B.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Major National Science and Technology Project for Comprehensive Environmental Management in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region (2024ZD1200302), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52376104, 52306133), the Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province (E2023202105), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2024T170209), the National Government Guides Local Science and Technology Development Fund Project (246Z3701G), the Project of Science and Technology at the Universities of Hebei Province (JZX2023006), and the Tianjin Science and Technology Plan Project (23YDPYSN00260).

Data Availability Statement

No data were reported in the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Catalysts 15 00158 g001
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of photocatalytic principle [26].
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of photocatalytic principle [26].
Catalysts 15 00158 g001
Catalysts 15 00158 g002
Figure 2. Catalytic principle and pathway of photothermal catalysis: (a) Thermal-assisted photocatalysis; (b) Photo-assisted thermal catalysis; (c) Photothermal effect induced by recombination of charge carriers over semiconductor catalysts; (d) Photothermal effect and hot carrier generation induced by the decay of plasmons over plasmonic metal catalysts [27].
Figure 2. Catalytic principle and pathway of photothermal catalysis: (a) Thermal-assisted photocatalysis; (b) Photo-assisted thermal catalysis; (c) Photothermal effect induced by recombination of charge carriers over semiconductor catalysts; (d) Photothermal effect and hot carrier generation induced by the decay of plasmons over plasmonic metal catalysts [27].
Catalysts 15 00158 g002
Catalysts 15 00158 g003
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of synthesis process for UV-CDs/Zeolite-4A/TiO2 [28].
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of synthesis process for UV-CDs/Zeolite-4A/TiO2 [28].
Catalysts 15 00158 g003
Catalysts 15 00158 g004
Figure 4. Possible mechanism of photocatalytic toluene degradation over TiO2@HYZ under UV irradiation [29].
Figure 4. Possible mechanism of photocatalytic toluene degradation over TiO2@HYZ under UV irradiation [29].
Catalysts 15 00158 g004
Catalysts 15 00158 g005
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of Cu/WO3−x@ZNC for catalytic degradation of CIP and photothermal evaporation of water [30].
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of Cu/WO3−x@ZNC for catalytic degradation of CIP and photothermal evaporation of water [30].
Catalysts 15 00158 g005
Catalysts 15 00158 g006
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the structure of a nanofiber membrane functionalized with silver nanoparticles [33].
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the structure of a nanofiber membrane functionalized with silver nanoparticles [33].
Catalysts 15 00158 g006
Catalysts 15 00158 g007
Figure 7. Schematic diagram of toluene oxidation reaction over 0.9Pt-mTiO2/USY [34].
Figure 7. Schematic diagram of toluene oxidation reaction over 0.9Pt-mTiO2/USY [34].
Catalysts 15 00158 g007
Catalysts 15 00158 g008
Figure 8. Photocatalytic oxidation mechanism of RhB on Zeo-TiO2 and Zeo-ZnO catalysts [35].
Figure 8. Photocatalytic oxidation mechanism of RhB on Zeo-TiO2 and Zeo-ZnO catalysts [35].
Catalysts 15 00158 g008
Catalysts 15 00158 g009
Figure 9. Schematic diagram of photocatalytic n-butane conversion over FeOx/MFI catalyst [48].
Figure 9. Schematic diagram of photocatalytic n-butane conversion over FeOx/MFI catalyst [48].
Catalysts 15 00158 g009
Catalysts 15 00158 g010
Figure 10. Schematic diagram of methane oxidation to methanol over Cu/Ti-ZSM-5 through thermal catalysis and photothermal catalysis [54].
Figure 10. Schematic diagram of methane oxidation to methanol over Cu/Ti-ZSM-5 through thermal catalysis and photothermal catalysis [54].
Catalysts 15 00158 g010
Catalysts 15 00158 g011
Figure 11. Schematic illustration of two-step synthesis process for the CuOx-WOx/mTiO2−x-USY catalyst [50].
Figure 11. Schematic illustration of two-step synthesis process for the CuOx-WOx/mTiO2−x-USY catalyst [50].
Catalysts 15 00158 g011
Catalysts 15 00158 g012
Figure 12. Photocatalytic mechanism of the degradation of MB dye over Ag3PO4@zeolite [76].
Figure 12. Photocatalytic mechanism of the degradation of MB dye over Ag3PO4@zeolite [76].
Catalysts 15 00158 g012
Catalysts 15 00158 g013
Figure 13. Degradation mechanism of methylene blue and methyl orange dye over GZ1 catalyst [65].
Figure 13. Degradation mechanism of methylene blue and methyl orange dye over GZ1 catalyst [65].
Catalysts 15 00158 g013
Catalysts 15 00158 g014
Figure 14. Schematic illustration of the formation of BiOI/mordenite composite catalyst [83].
Figure 14. Schematic illustration of the formation of BiOI/mordenite composite catalyst [83].
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Catalysts 15 00158 g015
Figure 15. Schematic illustration of the transformation from municipal solid waste to a photocatalyst and the photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue under solar radiation [68].
Figure 15. Schematic illustration of the transformation from municipal solid waste to a photocatalyst and the photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue under solar radiation [68].
Catalysts 15 00158 g015
Table 1. Properties and characteristics of different zeolites.
Table 1. Properties and characteristics of different zeolites.
Types of ZeoliteStructural CharacteristicsCrystal StructurePore Size (Å)Silicon to Aluminum RatioType of Pore ChannelExchange Capacity (meq/g)Specific Surface Area (m2/g)Acid Strength
A-Type ZeoliteCubic Crystal StructureLTA Type41:1–3:1Cubic Diagonal Channel0.3–0.5300–600Weakly Acidic
X-Type ZeoliteCubic Crystal StructureFAU Type8–91:1–2:1Octahedral Pore3.0–4.5500–900Strong Acid
Y-Type ZeoliteCubic Crystal StructureFAU Type7–9>2:1Octahedral Pore0.7–1.2600–1000Strong Acid
β-Type ZeoliteHexagonal Crystal StructureBEA Type5.6–6.6>10:1Double Channel1.0–1.5500–800Moderate Acidity
MordeniteMonoclinic Crystal StructureMOR Type6.5–7.05:1–20:1Straight and Curved Ducts0.8–1.2350–500Moderate Acidity
ZSM-5Monoclinic Crystal StructureMFI Type5.3–5.7>10:1Straight Channel2.5–3.5300–500Strong Acid
USYCubic Crystal StructureFAU Type7.4>3:1Octahedral Pore0.5–3.5400–700Strong Acid
Table 2. The photocatalytic oxidation performance of different catalysts for VOCs.
Table 2. The photocatalytic oxidation performance of different catalysts for VOCs.
CatalystVOCVOC ConcentrationCatalyst Mass (mg)LightConversion (%)SBET (m2/g)Reference
TiO2/ZSM-5Propene100 ppmv1108 W/365 nm82234[39]
TiO2/silicaliteTrichloroethylene25 ppm308 W74396[40]
TiO2/zeoliteToluene42.5 ppm—4 W/365 nm89—[41]
FeZSM-5-HTEthylene1000 ppm2004 W/254 nm52—[42]
HZSM-5Isopropyl alcohol150 ppm2008 W/254 nm94308[43]
TiO2/HZSM-5Formaldehyde10 ppmv—1.6 W/365 nm8078[44]
TiO2/HZSM-5Acetaldehyde10 ppmv—1.6 W/365 nm5078[44]
TiO2/HZSM-5Acetic acid10 ppmv—1.6 W/365 nm9878[44]
TiO2/HZSM-5Toluene10 ppmv—1.6 W/365 nm7078[44]
TiO2/zeoliteEthanol700 ppm9100 W/367 nm100335[45]
TiO2/zeoliteDiethyl sulfide375 ppm9100 W/367 nm100335[45]
5Fe-10W-NaYAcetaldehyde—1000>400 nm8018.4[46]
5Fe-10W-NaYO-xylene—1000>400 nm7618.4[46]
TiO2/ZSM-5Formaldehyde15 ppm308 W95422[47]
TiO2/Zeolite Ytrichloroethylene25 ppm308 W80776[47]
TiO2@HYZToluene760 ppm100300 W96.686.6[29]
Table 4. The catalytic oxidation performance of different catalysts for water pollutants.
Table 4. The catalytic oxidation performance of different catalysts for water pollutants.
CatalystWater PollutantPollutant Concentration (mg/L)Catalyst Concentration (g/L)LightTime (min)Degradation Rate (%)SBET (m2/g)Reference
CuO/NaXMethylene blue9.61—18094412[15]
NiO/zeoliteMalachite green300.2512 W/460 nm25083720[55]
ZnO-natural zeoliteProcion red50415 W/254 nm12075.54134.35[56]
TiO2/Fe-ZSM-5COD60228 W24080304.6[57]
TiO2/HSZ-385Sulfamethazine100.2365 nm36066.7424.22[58]
TiO2/5AOxytetracycline500.116 W/254 nm210100539.51[59]
Chabazite-TiO2Rhodamine 6G14.370.25Sunlight9097.9—[60]
10%TiO2−xNx/BetaMethylene blue150.3>460 nm17585315.6[61]
TiO2-HXAcetaminophen1115 W/245 nm12095.45—[62]
TiO2-zeolitePentafluoropropionic acid100.516 W/185 nm48058.7270[63]
UV-CDs/zeolite-4A/TiO2Methylene blue100.1500 W/365 nm6090.63237.55[28]
ZnO/ZnFe2O4/zeoliteRhodamine B500.230 W/395 nm6098.5562.97[64]
ZSM-5/grapheneMethyl orange200.5450 W18092—[65]
20%TiO2/ET4Methyl orange100.5150 W24095—[66]
Cu/TiO2/NaYReactive blue dye1017 W/254 nm2405313.29[67]
NaP1Methylene blue1001—7209624.86[68]
TiO2/zeoliteCr(VI)252500 W18010053.59[69]
10.4%CuO/X zeoliteO-phenylenediamine250.3Sunlight24090—[70]
TiO2/HY2,4-D20028 W/254 nm300100—[71]
ZnO/zeoliteMethylene blue10130 W/365 nm18090395[37]
NH4ZSM-5Methylene blue10.5125 W/365 nm18077.5—[72]
NH4BETARhodamine B10.5125 W/365 nm18083.3—[72]
RGO@1%Pt/Ti-MFI-NSsMethylene blue2202.5300 W/420 nm9099—[73]
15%TiO2/5AOxytetracycline500.516 W/254 nm210100—[74]
10%TiO2/13XOxytetracycline500.516 W/254 nm210100—[74]
10%ZnO/NaXReactive blue 5G101250 W/310–350 nm30100239[75]
Ti-NaZSM-5Methyl orange100.33300 W90100325.2[32]
15%Ag3PO4@Zeolite-AMethylene blue101300 W150100—[76]
4A/WO3/CuOMethyl orange100.1515 W3099.1210.76[77]
4A/WO3/CuOIndigo carmine100.1515 W3097.2410.76[77]
Zeo-TiO2Rhodamine B5135 W80100172[35]
Zeo-ZnORhodamine B5135 W8081158[35]
5%ZnO/FeYDichlorophenoxyacetic acid181250 W30057523.41[78]
5%ZnO/FeYDichlorophenoxyacetic acid181Sunlight30085523.41[78]
SnO2-hierarchical zeoliteMethylene blue40115 W/254 nm12097229[79]
6%Co3O4/ABWBordeaux dye22—309029.45[80]
TiO2/ZSM-5Methyl orange202550 W18099.551151[38]
MT-ZLSH-Li+Methylene blue150.5300–800 nm18077—[81]
TiO2@Zeolite-YPolyphenols111115 W/254 nm48077216[82]
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Zhang, S.; Xu, L.; Xu, J.; Shen, B. A Mini-Review of Recent Progress in Zeolite-Based Catalysts for Photocatalytic or Photothermal Environmental Pollutant Treatment. Catalysts 2025, 15, 158. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15020158

AMA Style

Zhang S, Xu L, Xu J, Shen B. A Mini-Review of Recent Progress in Zeolite-Based Catalysts for Photocatalytic or Photothermal Environmental Pollutant Treatment. Catalysts. 2025; 15(2):158. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15020158

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Shenhao, Le Xu, Jie Xu, and Boxiong Shen. 2025. "A Mini-Review of Recent Progress in Zeolite-Based Catalysts for Photocatalytic or Photothermal Environmental Pollutant Treatment" Catalysts 15, no. 2: 158. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15020158

APA Style

Zhang, S., Xu, L., Xu, J., & Shen, B. (2025). A Mini-Review of Recent Progress in Zeolite-Based Catalysts for Photocatalytic or Photothermal Environmental Pollutant Treatment. Catalysts, 15(2), 158. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15020158

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