Fusion-Assisted Hydrothermal Synthesis and Post-Synthesis Modification of Mesoporous Hydroxy Sodalite Zeolite Prepared from Waste Coal Fly Ash for Biodiesel Production
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. XRD Analysis
2.2. Crystal Morphology
2.3. Elemental Composition
2.4. Fourier-Transform Infrared
2.5. Textural Properties
Pore Distribution and Isotherm Curves of Produced Catalysts
2.6. Biodiesel Production over CFA-Synthesised and Modified HS Zeolite
2.7. Techno-Economic and Environmental Impact of Hydroxyl Sodalite (F-HS) as a Heterogeneous Catalyst Compared to a Conventional Homogenous Catalyst in Biodiesel Production
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Materials
3.2. Catalyst Preparation and Ion Exchange Modification
3.2.1. Fusion-Assisted Hydrothermal Synthesis
3.2.2. Post-Synthesis Ion-Exchange Modification
3.2.3. Activity Tests of Synthesized Catalysts in Biodiesel Production from BSF Oil
3.3. Catalyst and Biodiesel Sample Characterisation
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sample | Element (Atomic, w/w%) | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
O | Al | Si | Na | Mg | K | Ca | Ti | Fe | P | Total | Si/Al | Na/Al | |
CFA | 65.15 | 11.23 | 14.86 | - | 1.54 | 0.23 | 4.32 | 0.30 | 1.13 | 1.25 | 100.0 | 1.32 | - |
F-HS | 65.35 | 12.42 | 14.65 | 11.55 | 0.39 | - | 1.18 | 0.29 | 0.57 | - | 100.0 | 1.18 | 0.93 |
K/F-HS | 59.75 | 10.1 | 13.67 | 8.17 | 0.8 | 3.77 | 1.97 | 0.44 | 1.13 | - | 100.0 | 1.35 | 0.81 |
Synthesis Method | Sample | Source | Surface Area (m2/g) | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total (a) | Meso. (b) | Micro. (b) | ||||
Fusion | F-HS | CFA | 45 | 42.2 | 2.7 | This study |
Direct | HS | CFA | 13.2 | 12.6 | 0.6 | Shabani [48] |
Conventional direct | HS | Pure chemicals | 43.6 | - | 9.6 | Golbad, Khoshnoud and Abu-Zahra [44] |
Conventional direct | HS | Pure chemicals | 11 | - | - | Shirani Lapari, Ramli and Triwahyono [31] |
Ion exchange | K/F-HS | 25.8 | 25 | 0.8 | This study |
Biodiesel Properties | Catalyst | B-Standard (a) | |
---|---|---|---|
F-HS | K/F-HS | ENS (b)/ASTM (c) | |
Acid value (mg KOH/g) | 0.53 | 0.74 | 0.5/0.8 Max |
Saponification value (mg KOH/g) | 147.87 | 145.43 | - |
Ester content (d) (% m/m) | 64.95 | 51.5 | 96.5 |
Iodine value (g of /100 g) | 65.01 | 61.4 | /120–130 |
Density at 40 °C (g/mL) | 0.877 | 0.893 | 0.86–0.90 |
Kinematics viscosity at 40 °C (mm2/s) | 5.16 | 4.68 | 3.5–5.0/1.9–6.0 |
Refractive index | 1.4455 | 1.4435 | /1.479 |
Cetane number | 36.63 | 36.66 | 51/47 |
Biodiesel Feedstock | Zeolite Catalyst | Ion Exchange Post-Synthesis | Biodiesel | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type (Source) | Hydrothermal Synthesis Method | Yield (%) | Properties | |||
WCO | ZSM-5 (* pure chem. reagents) | Direct | × √(NH4Cl) | - | - | Fawaz, Salam, S. Rigolet and Daou [24] |
Oleic acid | ZSM-5, ZRP-5, Beta (* pure chem. reagents) | - | × √(NH4Cl) | - | - | Sun, Lu, Ma, Han, Fu and Ding [21] |
Mustard oil | Na-X (CFA) | Fusion | × √(CH3COOK) | 41.90 53.7 | - - | Volli and Purkait [25] |
Sunflower oil | Na-X (CFA) | Fusion | × √(CH3COOK) | 56 83.52 | - - | Babajide, Musyoka, Petrik and Ameer [30] |
WCO | HS (* pure chem. reagents) | Direct | × | - | - | Makgaba and Daramola [36] |
* BSF oil | HS (CFA) | Fusion | × √(KOH) | 84.10 83.70 | √√ √√ | This study |
* Catalysed-Transesterification | Techno-Economic Impact | Enviromental Impact | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
NaOH homogeneous- |
|
| |
HS-catalysed |
|
| |
| - |
| |
|
| ||
| - |
| |
|
|
Characterisation | Instrument Model | Detector | Operating Conditions |
---|---|---|---|
Catalyst | |||
XRD | Bruker AXS (Bruker, Billerica, MA, USA) | LynxEye detector | Cu-Kα radiation (ń;Kα1 = 1.5406 Å), 40 kV, 40 mA. |
EDS-SEM | ZeiSS Gemini Auriga (high mag, Carl Zeiss AG, Jena, Germany) | CDU-lad detector | 25 kV |
FT-IR | Perkin Elmer 100 FT-IR (Perkin Elmer, Waltham, MA, USA | - | Sample configuration data set-range (450–2000 cm−1) |
BET-BJH | 3Flex version 5.00, serial # 990 (Micromeritics, Norcross, GA, USA) | - | Adsorption-desorption isotherms (77.6 K, 5 h) |
** Biodiesel | Instrument/analytical method | - | Reference |
Density | Density meter (DMA, Anton Paar) | - | Anastopoulos, et al. [62] |
Viscosity at 40 °C | Rheometer (* DHR) (ISO 3104) | - | AMSEC [63] |
Acid value | Titrimetric methods (ISO 1242) Titrimetric method (AOCS CD3) | - | Lucas [64] Babajide [65] |
Saponification | - | ||
Iodine value | Wij’s method (EN 14111) | - | Japir, et al. [66] |
FAME/ester | * GC-FID (HP88GC) (EN 14103) | Polar capillary column | Anastopoulos, Zannikou, Stournas and Kalligeros [62] |
Refractive index, n | Refractometer (#PA203 Misco) | - | - |
Cetane value, ∅𝑖 | Empirical correlation | - | Ramírez-Verduzco, et al. [67] |
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Shabani, J.M.; Ameh, A.E.; Oyekola, O.; Babajide, O.O.; Petrik, L. Fusion-Assisted Hydrothermal Synthesis and Post-Synthesis Modification of Mesoporous Hydroxy Sodalite Zeolite Prepared from Waste Coal Fly Ash for Biodiesel Production. Catalysts 2022, 12, 1652. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12121652
Shabani JM, Ameh AE, Oyekola O, Babajide OO, Petrik L. Fusion-Assisted Hydrothermal Synthesis and Post-Synthesis Modification of Mesoporous Hydroxy Sodalite Zeolite Prepared from Waste Coal Fly Ash for Biodiesel Production. Catalysts. 2022; 12(12):1652. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12121652
Chicago/Turabian StyleShabani, Juvet Malonda, Alechine E. Ameh, Oluwaseun Oyekola, Omotola O. Babajide, and Leslie Petrik. 2022. "Fusion-Assisted Hydrothermal Synthesis and Post-Synthesis Modification of Mesoporous Hydroxy Sodalite Zeolite Prepared from Waste Coal Fly Ash for Biodiesel Production" Catalysts 12, no. 12: 1652. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12121652