Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Breast Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Search Strategy
2.2. Study Selection
2.3. Data Extraction
2.4. Quality Assessment
2.5. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Studies Selected
3.2. Review of Studies on Traffic-Related Air Pollution Exposure
3.3. Meta-Analysis on NO2/NOx Exposure
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reference; Region | Study ID a | Exposure | Design | No. of Cases/No. of Total Subjects or No. of Controls b | Exposure Assessment | Variables of Adjustment | Quality Assessment (NOS Score/9) | Important Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lewis-Michl et al., 1996; USA [46] | - | Traffic density (number of vehicle-miles divided by the number of miles of highway) | CC | 793/966 | Traffic density = vehicle miles/miles of highway (5-km2 grid cells) Weighted annual average of residential address exposures 20 years prior to the index date → based on residential history High density = average ≥ 100,000 vehicle miles/miles of highway | Age, family history, history of benign breast disease, age at first birth, education | 4 | High-density traffic (Nassau): OR = 1.29 (0.77, 2.15) High-density traffic (Suffolk): OR = 0.89 (0.40, 1.99) |
Nie et al., 2007; USA [47] | - | BaP | CC | 1068/1944 | Exposure to BaP estimated by a geographical model validated and calibrated with measurements at different points in time of life → based on residential history | Age; ethnicity; education; BMI; smoking history; diet; medical history; age at first birth, number of births; family history; age at menarche; age at menopause; history of benign breast disease | 8 | At menarche Premenopausal: Q4/Q1: OR = 2.07 (0.91, 4.72) At first birth Premenopausal: Q4/Q1: OR = 1.22 (0.44, 3.36) Postmenopausal: Q4/Q1: OR = 2.58 (1.15, 5.83) 20 years prior to diagnosis Premenopausal: Q4/Q1: OR = 1.29 (0.59, 2.82) Postmenopausal: Q4/Q1: OR = 0.82 (0.58, 1.18) 10 years prior to diagnosis Premenopausal: Q4/Q1: OR = 1.49 (0.65, 3.43) Postmenopausal: Q4/Q1: OR = 0.80 (0.55, 1.17) |
Crouse et al., 2010; Canada [29] | 1 | NO2 | CC | 383/416 | Statistical methods (LUR) Annual average in 1985 (10 years before diagnosis), 1996 (at diagnosis), and 2006 at the interview address (1996–1997) c | Age at diagnosis; age at menarche; age at first birth; duration of breastfeeding; age at bilateral oophorectomy; BMI; smoking status; alcohol consumption; education; hospital of diagnosis; family history; ethnicity; oral contraceptive use; duration of HRT; respondent status; history of benign breast disease; occupational exposure to solvents, low magnetic fields, CO, and PAHs; neighborhood income and SES | 6 | Postmenopausal: (per 5 ppb) 2016: OR = 1.52 (0.82, 2.81) 1996: OR = 1.42 (0.81, 2.48) Mean of 1996 and 1985: OR = 1.34 (0.83, 2.16) 1985: OR = 1.28 (0.84, 1.93) |
Raaschou-Nielsen et al., 2011; Denmark [22] | - | Traffic density (distance from subject’s residence to the closest major road; number of vehicles on the nearest road) | Co | 987/27,735 | -Presence of a street with a traffic density >10,000 vehicles per day within 50 m of the residence -Total number of kilometers travelled by vehicles within 200 m of the residence each day → At baseline address | Age; smoking status; smoking intensity and duration; second-hand smoking; physical activity; BMI; diet; alcohol consumption; breastfeeding; number of births; age at first full-term pregnancy; previous benign breast tumor; previous diagnosis of hypertension; oral contraceptive use; HRT use; skin sensitivity to the sun | 8 | Major street within 50 m (yes/no): IRR = 0.98 (0.78, 1.22) Per 104 vehicle km/day within 200 m: IRR = 0.98 (0.88, 1.10) |
Hystad et al., 2015; Canada [48] | 2 | NO2/traffic density (distance from subject’s residence to the closest major road) | CC | 1569/1624 | Dispersion model (CTM based on satellite data), statistical methods (interpolation and LUR) Average exposure (1975–1994) from postal codes of residential history Number of years participants resided within 50 m, 100 m, and 300 m of a highway or main road during the 20-year exposure period (1975–1994) → based on residential history postal codes | Age; study province; age at menarche; years of menstruation; parity; age at first birth; breastfeeding; oophorectomy; BMI; smoking status; years since smoking cessation; alcohol consumption; median household income; years of education; second-hand smoking status; meat and vegetable consumption; physical activity; mammography; neighborhood SES; time in urban area | 8 | NO2: OR = 1.04 (0.95; 1.14) Highways (for an increment of 1 additional year of residence) Years ≤ 50 m OR = 0.95 (0.73, 1.23) Years ≤ 100 m OR = 0.95 (0.78, 1.15) Years ≤ 300 m OR = 0.98 (0.86, 1.11) Major roads (for an increment of 1 additional year of residence) Years ≤ 50 m OR = 0.94 (0.82, 1.08) Years ≤ 100 m OR = 1.03 (0.92, 1.15) Years ≤ 300 m OR = 0.98 (0.90, 1.08) |
Mordukhovich et al., 2016; USA [37] | - | PAH | CC | 1274/1334 | Geographical model validated and calibrated with measurements → based on residential histories in Nassau and Suffolk counties only; addresses at which a woman resided for at least 1 year | Age; education; ethnicity; religion; parity; BMI; age at first full-term pregnancy; oral contraceptive use; alcohol consumption; physical activity; breastfeeding; HRT use; SES | 8 | Traffic PAH exposure: - in 1995: 95th/<50th: OR = 1.06 (0.70, 1.60) - in 1960–1990: 95th/<50th: OR = 1.47 (0.70, 3.08) |
Hart et al., 2016; USA [42] | - | Traffic density (distance from subject’s residence to the closest major road) | Co | 3072/111,545 | Distance of 3 types of roads to the address (time-dependent variable) using the 2007 roads database → based on residential history (every 2 years) (2007 roads database) | Age; ethnicity; family history; age at menarche; parity; age at first full-term pregnancy; height; BMI; BMI at age 18; history of benign breast disease; alcohol consumption; diet; oral contraceptive use; menopausal status; hormone use; smoking status; physical activity; individual SES; neighborhood SES | 7 | 0–49 m from A1–A3 roads (vs. ≥ 200 m): HR = 1.02 (0.75, 1.37) 0–49 m from A1–A2 roads (vs. ≥ 200 m): HR = 1.44 (0.71, 2.92) 0–199 m from A1 roads (vs. ≥ 200 m): HR = 1.52 (0.89, 2.60) |
Shmuel et al., 2017; USA [43] | - | Traffic density (characteristics of the main road and of the nearest cross-street) | Co | 2028/42,934 | Distance to the nearest intersection/cross-street Characteristics of the main road (number of lanes, presence of median or barrier) Traffic volume during rush hour → At the longest residence before 14 years old | Age, ethnicity; childhood SES; smoking status; education, family history; menopausal status; childhood residence urban/rural status | 5 | Characteristics of the main road at childhood residence: ≥3 lanes (vs. 1–2): HR = 0.8 (0.6, 1.1) With median or barrier of any kind (vs. without) HR = 1.2 (0.9, 1.7) Heavy traffic (vs. light traffic): HR = 0.9 (0.7, 1.1) Characteristics of the nearest cross-street or intersecting road: Within 100 ft., 3+ lanes and/or median/barrier and heavy traffic (vs.100 ft. + and/or (neither 3+ lanes, nor median/barrier)) HR = 1.4 (1.0, 1.9) |
Goldberg et al., 2017; Canada [49] | 3 | NO2 | CC | 679/596 | Statistical methods (LUR) Annual average in 2005–2006 at baseline address | Age; age at menarche; parity; age at first birth; breastfeeding; oophorectomy; BMI; smoking status; alcohol consumption; education; family history; ethnicity; oral contraceptive use; HRT use; second-hand smoking; marital status; census variables (immigrants; unemployment; education; income) | 9 | Postmenopausal: per increase of IQR 3.75 ppb: OR: 1.07 (0.83; 1.38) |
Andersen et al., 2017a; Denmark [40] | 4 | NO2 | Co (Danish Nurse Cohort Study) | 1145/22,877 | Method combining a dispersion model (THOR) and a proxy using GIS (Danish AirGis) 3-year annual running average from 1990 to index date based on residential history | Age; age at menarche; parity; age at first birth; BMI; smoking status; alcohol consumption; physical activity; menopausal status; oral contraceptive use; HRT use; urbanization level | 7 | NO2: HR = 1.00 (0.94–1.07) (per interquartile range increase 7.4 μg/m3) |
Andersen et al., 2017b; 15 cohorts from nine European countries d [26] | 5 | NO2/NOx/traffic Density (number of vehicles on the nearest road) | Co (ESCAPE) | 3612/74,750 | Statistical methods (LUR) At the address at baseline Number of vehicles per day on the nearest road → At baseline address | Age; parity; age at first birth; breastfeeding; BMI; smoking status; years since smoking cessation; alcohol consumption; education; employment; physical activity; oral contraceptive use; HRT use; neighborhood income | 7 | Postmenopausal NO2: HR = 1.02 (0.98–1.07) p = 0.33 (per increase of 10 μg/m3) NOx: HR = 1.04 (1.00–1.08) p = 0.04 (per increase of 20 μg/m3) |
Datzmann et al., 2018; Germany [34] | 6 | NO2 | Co | 9577/1,918,449 | Statistical methods (LUR) Annual average in 2007 in the residential district at the baseline address | Age; alcohol-related disorder; unemployment; district number of physician contacts, population density and proportion of unemployment | 6 | NO2: RR = 1.07 (1.03–1.12) (per increase of 10 μg/m3) |
Cohen et al., 2018; Israël [44] | 7 | NOx | Co | 41/2307 | Statistical methods (LUR) Average of estimated annual concentrations between 2004 and 2012 at baseline address | Age; smoking status; neighborhood SES; ethnicity; hypertension; diabetes; chronic heart failure; renal failure; hemoglobin levels | 5 | NOx: adjusted HR = 1.43 (1.12–1.83) (for a 10-ppb increase) |
White et al., 2019; USA [39] | 8 | NO2 | Co (The Sister Study) | 2203/47,433 | Statistical methods (kriging) Annual average in 2006 at baseline address | Age; parity; BMI; smoking status; education; ethnicity; HRT use; income; marital status; census tract level income; geographic region | 7 | All: HR = 1.06 (1.01–1.11) Invasive: HR = 1.01 (0.96–1.07) In situ (DCIS): HR = 1.23 (1.12–1.36) (for an increase in the IQR difference 5.8 ppb) |
Goldberg et al., 2019; Canada [41] | 9 | NO2 | Co (Canadian National Breast Screening Study) | 6503/89,247 | Statistical methods (LUR) Annual average in 2006 at baseline address | Age; age at menarche; pregnancy; BMI; smoking status; education; employment; occupation; family history; oral contraceptive use; HRT use; breast self-examination; contextual measures (education; income; unemployment) | 6 | Premenopausal: Rate ratio: 1.17 (1.00–1.38) for increase of 9.7 ppb Postmenopausal Rate ratio: 1.00 (0.95–1.06) for increase of 9.7 ppb |
Bai et al., 2019; Canada [23] | 10 | NO2 | Co (Ontario Population Health and Environment Cohort) | 91,146/2,564,340 | Statistical methods (LUR) Time-varying variables using a 3-year running average without taking into account the 4 years before the index date, using residential history | Age; census tract-level recent immigrants, unemployment rate, education and income; urban residency and a north/south indicator | 7 | NO2: HR = 1.02 (0.99–1.04) for 8.2 ppb |
Cheng et al., 2020; USA [35] | 11 | NO2/NOx | Co (The multi-ethnic cohort study) | ≃2, 500 e/57,589 | Statistical methods (kriging, LUR), dispersion model A set of cumulative average exposures for a series of time intervals during monitoring from residential history | Age; age at menarche; parity; age at first birth; BMI; smoking status; alcohol consumption; family history; ethnicity; HRT use; menopausal status; physical activity; energy intake; neighborhood SES and education | 8 | NOx Kriging: HR = 1.12 (0.96–1.31) (increase of 50.2 ppb) LUR: HR = 1.08 (0.96–1.22) (increase of 45.6 ppb) CALINE4: HR = 0.97 (0.73–1.26) (increase of 8.7 ppb) NO2 Kriging: HR = 1.09 (0.91–1.31) (increase of 16.5 ppb) LUR: HR = 1.04 (0.90–1.20) (increase of 18.6 ppb) |
White et al., 2021; USA [45] | 12 | NO2 | Co | 2146/41,312 | Statistical methods (LUR) Annual average in 2000–2010 at baseline residence and time-varying air pollution exposure throughout follow-up | Age; education; smoking status; parity; HRT use; BMI; census geographic region; menopausal status and menopausal status*BMI. | 7 | HR = 0.94 (0.87–1.02) for 9.90 ppb increase |
Lemarchand et al., 2021; France [25] | 13 | NO2 | CC (CECILE study) | 1229/1316 | Chemistry transport model 10-year period prior the reference date using residential history | Age; study area; family history; age at first full-term pregnancy; HRT use; physical activity | 9 | OR = 1.11 (0.96; 1.26) |
Li et al., 2021; Taiwan [24] | - | NO2 | Co | 1603/98,017 | Monitoring station | Age; monthly income and urbanization level | 6 | Q4/Q1 NO2: HR = 1.79 (1.48, 2.15) |
Amadou et al., 2022; France [50] | 14 | NO2 | Nested CC (XENAIR) | 5222/5222 | Statistical methods (LUR), chemistry transport model Cumulative exposure from inclusion to index date at each address from inclusion to index date | Age; date; department of residence; menopausal at baseline; physical activity; smoking status; education; rural urban status at inclusion; BMI; family history; history of benign breast disease; age at menarche; parity and age at first full-term pregnancy; breastfeeding; oral contraceptive use and HRT use | 8 | RR = 1.04 (0.99; 1.09) |
N Studies | RR (95% CI) | I2 (%) | p for Heterogeneity | p for Heterogeneity between Strata | ID of Included Articles a | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall meta-estimate | 13 | 1.015 (1.003; 1.028) | 16.9 | 0.27 | 1–6, 8–14 | ||
Exposure assessment method | 1.00 | ||||||
LUR | 10 | 1.016 (1.002; 1.030) | 26.5 | 0.20 | 1–3, 5, 6, 9–12, 14 | ||
Other | 6 | 1.037 (1.006; 1.069) | 9.8 | 0.35 | 2, 4, 8, 11, 13, 14 | ||
Address used for exposure assessment | 0.24 | ||||||
At baseline | 7 | 1.018 (0.993; 1.043) | 38.7 | 0.14 | 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12 | ||
Residential history | 6 | 1.010 (1.001; 1.019) | 0.0 | 0.49 | 2, 4, 10, 11, 13, 14 | ||
Geographic area | 0.10 | ||||||
North America | 8 | 1.007 (0.999; 1.016) | 0.0 | 0.90 | 1–3, 8–11, 12 | ||
Europe | 5 | 1.043 (1.017; 1.069) | 6.6 | 0.37 | 4–6, 13, 14 | ||
Menopausal status | 0.76 | ||||||
Postmenopausal | 9 | 1.014 (0.995; 1.033) | 0 | 0.51 | 1–3, 5, 8, 9 | ||
Premenopausal | 6 | 1.022 (0.963; 1.085) | 37.8 | 0.15 | 2, 8, 9 | ||
ER/PR status of the tumor | 0.32 | ||||||
ER+PR+ | 5 | 1.034 (0.992; 1.077) | 0.0 | 0.52 | 3, 8, 11, 13, 14 | ||
ER−PR− | 5 | 0.988 (0.925; 1.055) | 6.6 | 0.37 | 3, 8, 11, 13, 14 |
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Praud, D.; Deygas, F.; Amadou, A.; Bouilly, M.; Turati, F.; Bravi, F.; Xu, T.; Grassot, L.; Coudon, T.; Fervers, B. Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Breast Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Cancers 2023, 15, 927. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15030927
Praud D, Deygas F, Amadou A, Bouilly M, Turati F, Bravi F, Xu T, Grassot L, Coudon T, Fervers B. Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Breast Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Cancers. 2023; 15(3):927. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15030927
Chicago/Turabian StylePraud, Delphine, Floriane Deygas, Amina Amadou, Maryline Bouilly, Federica Turati, Francesca Bravi, Tingting Xu, Lény Grassot, Thomas Coudon, and Béatrice Fervers. 2023. "Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Breast Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies" Cancers 15, no. 3: 927. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15030927