Next Article in Journal
Role of Microtubule-Associated Protein 1b in Urothelial Carcinoma: Overexpression Predicts Poor Prognosis
Next Article in Special Issue
Mitochondrial Respiration Correlates with Prognostic Markers in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia and Is Normalized by Ibrutinib Treatment
Previous Article in Journal
tRNA Queuosine Modification Enzyme Modulates the Growth and Microbiome Recruitment to Breast Tumors
Previous Article in Special Issue
Transcriptional Modulation by Idelalisib Synergizes with Bendamustine in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Cancers
Volume 12
Issue 3
10.3390/cancers12030629
cancers-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Tumor Suppressors in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: From Lost Partners to Active Targets

by
Giacomo Andreani
1,†,
Giovanna Carrà
1,†,
Marcello Francesco Lingua
2,
Beatrice Maffeo
1,
Mara Brancaccio
3,
Riccardo Taulli
2,† and
Alessandro Morotti
1,*,†
1
Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Torino, 10043 Orbassano, Italy
2
Department of Oncology, University of Torino, 10043 Orbassano, Italy
3
Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, 10126 Turin, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors equally contributed to the work.
Cancers 2020, 12(3), 629; https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers12030629
Submission received: 21 January 2020 / Revised: 24 February 2020 / Accepted: 4 March 2020 / Published: 9 March 2020
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Tumor suppressors play an important role in cancer pathogenesis and in the modulation of resistance to treatments. Loss of function of the proteins encoded by tumor suppressors, through genomic inactivation of the gene, disable all the controls that balance growth, survival, and apoptosis, promoting cancer transformation. Parallel to genetic impairments, tumor suppressor products may also be functionally inactivated in the absence of mutations/deletions upon post-transcriptional and post-translational modifications. Because restoring tumor suppressor functions remains the most effective and selective approach to induce apoptosis in cancer, the dissection of mechanisms of tumor suppressor inactivation is advisable in order to further augment targeted strategies. This review will summarize the role of tumor suppressors in chronic lymphocytic leukemia and attempt to describe how tumor suppressors can represent new hopes in our arsenal against chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL).

1. Introduction

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is the most common adult leukemia in the western world accounting for 25% of all adult leukemias [1]. In these countries, the incidence of CLL is almost 5 new cases per 100,000 adults, with a peak of incidence in people older than 70 years [2]. CLL is a cancer of mature B lymphocytes that are clonally expanded and accumulated in the blood, bone marrow, and lymphoid tissues. The presence on peripheral blood of ≥5000 lymphocytes/μL with the typical immunophenotypic co-expression of T cell marker CD5 and B cell surface antigens CD19, CD20, and CD23 with low levels of monoclonal immunoglobulin defines CLL diagnosis according to the international working group of CLL [3,4]. The clinical course of CLL is variable, as extensively reviewed [5]. Chemoimmunotherapy was recognized as the standard of treatment for young patients with CLL (below 65 years of age) who can benefit from fludarabine and cyclophosphamide with anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody. More recently, the inhibitor of Bruton’s tyrosine kinase; ibrutinib [6]; the inhibitor of Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3-kinase) catalytic subunit delta (idelalisib) [7]; and the inhibitor of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), venetoclax [8], have irrupted into the clinical arena, offering the change for a selective, chemo-free approach of cure. With the introduction of these target molecules, it is crucial to well-stratify CLL patients with the aim of identifying those who can really benefit from a chemotherapy approach (e.g., immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region gene IGHV-mutated) and who cannot (e.g., tumor protein p53, TP53-mutated). TP53-mutated/deleted CLL patients are currently approached with novel drugs due to the innate resistance to chemotherapy that only provide a change to further select more resistant and aggressive clones [9].
However, the aim of CLL eradication remains a challenging issue, and the need of perfect combination of the drugs and/or new targets is mandatory. Originally, tumor suppressors were described as major players in cancer that act when lost. Currently, the involvement of tumor suppressors in cancer is much more complex. Besides the lack of tumor suppressors because of mutations/deletions, it is clear that some tumor suppressors are also impaired when functionally inactive through epigenetic and/or post-translational mechanisms [10,11]. Various genetically wild-type tumor suppressors appeared inactive due to variations in expression, functionality, and/or cellular compartmentalization.
The portrait of the CLL genome has been taken with great detail, in either coding or non-coding compartments [12,13,14]. Overall, these great efforts have pointed out that the number of copy number aberrations is low, with a range of 0–2 lesions per patient, suggesting that complex mechanisms may promote CLL development and maintenance, besides genetics. Although on one hand such a scenario may impose further investigations to dissect mechanisms of CLL pathogenesis, on the other it could revive new therapeutic options. This review summarizes the role of tumor suppressors in CLL, focusing on both deleted/mutated tumor suppressors and on functionally inactive ones. In the first part of this review, we describe the genetic impairment of tumor suppressors in CLL through mutations and deletions, as found for various TP53, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), and others. Next, we describe tumor suppressors that are functionally inactivated, including modifications at the transcriptional and protein levels.

2. Mechanisms of Tumor Suppressor Inactivation in CLL: Genetic Loss of Function

In this section, we discuss the most frequently inactive tumor suppressors through deletion or mutational inactivation of the genes (Figure 1).

2.1. Deletion of 13q14 Locus

Deletion 13q14 is the most common chromosomal abnormality detected in CLL (≈60% of cases), followed by 11q and 17p deletions (18% and 8% of CLL cases respectively), and by trisomy 12 (12–16% of cases) (National Comprehensive Cancer Network NCCN, Version 2.2020). This deletion is generally found in heterozygosity and spans through a variable region of chromosome 13 among patients [15]. The most common region targets the tumor suppressor locus deleted in lymphocytic leukemia 2 DLEU2/MIR15A/MIR16A [16]. In a portion of patients, this deletion has been found as a biallelic deletion; however, no clear differences between mono- and biallelic deletions were found in CLL patients [15]. Besides the presence of such deletion, these genes are often downmodulated in CLL patients, suggesting the presence of additional mechanisms of regulation with potentially relevant implications in the pathogenesis of CLL. Clinically, the presence of this deletion is associated with a favorable prognosis. Experimentally, few murine models have narrowed the pathogenetic role of this deletion to miR-15a-miR16-1 [17]. In normal cells, miR-15a and miR-16-1 inhibit the expression of B cell CLL/B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL2), as well as the cyclins Cyclin D1 (CCND1) and CCND3, and cyclin-dependent kinase 6 (CDK6) [18]. In this respect, it is worth noting that the main cause of Bcl2 overexpression in CLL is the loss of miR-15a and miR-16-1 consequential to 13q14 deletion, whereas de-repression of BCL2 is due to the lack of microRNA-mRNA interaction [19]. Furthermore, recent reports have also elucidated the link between miR-15a/miR-16-1 and TP53 expression. An inverse correlation between expression of the above-mentioned microRNAs and p53 levels has been established both in cell lines and in CLL patients owning del13q. A binding site for miR-15a and miR-16-1 has been identified inside the 3’-untranslated region of TP53 [20,21]. Additionally, 13q14del CLL express low levels of telomere-specific reverse transcriptase activity (TERT). This is partially explained by the fact that p53 directly represses the transcription of TERT [22]. Patients harboring 13q14 deletion as a sole abnormality have a favorable clinical outcome, with the longest median survival among all CLL patients (NCCN, Version 2.2020). This kind of indolent subtype of CLL can be considered the intriguing result of the balance between oncogene and oncosuppressor activation originated from a unique chromosomal deletion, mutation, or epigenetic alteration ending in the reduced expression of the primum movens oncosuppressor miR-15a/miR-16-1.

2.2. TP53

TP53 is one of the most frequently mutated tumor suppressors in cancers [23]. Mutations of the TP53 gene and deletion of the chromosome 17p13 (17p-) impair the function of the p53 tumor suppressor and identify a very high risk CLL group of patients [24]. TP53 aberrations occur in almost 10% of CLL patients, but the frequencies further increase in resistant and progressing CLL patients, as has been extensively reviewed [18]. Due to the role of p53 in the modulation of apoptosis, lack of p53 is undoubtedly associated with a more aggressive, instable, and chemo-resistant form of CLL. It is worth to noting that TP53 (minor)-subclones are easily selected by chemotherapy, allowing it to change from a more indolent CLL form into a chemo-refractory one [9]. As a consequence, investigation of TP53 mutations/deletion is a mandatory approach before the enrollment of a CLL patient to therapy [25]. Lastly, TP53 aberrations were shown to play a role in the progression of CLL towards Richter syndrome (RS) [26].

2.3. ATM/del(11q)

Deletions in the 11q22-23 locus (commonly referred as 11q-) are recognized in a range between 11% and 18% in non-biased CLL cohort, but it increases with the Binet stage. This aberration is generally associated with the IGHV unmutated phenotype and is expressed in heterozygosity. The deletion of this portion of chromosome 11 is associated with the loss of ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) gene. ATM is a serine/threonine protein kinase acting as a tumor suppressor gene. It dictates cellular responses during DNA damage [27]. The lack of ATM is associated with the development of genomic instability and therefore a more aggressive phenotype. Del(11q), often associated with extensive lymphadenopathy, disease progression, and shorter median survival (≈40% of cases alive at 10 years), is an adverse factor that identifies a group of patients with intermediate-risk disease.

2.4. SF3B1 Mutations

Splicing factor 3b subunit 1 (SF3B1) mutations are another commonly identified somatic mutation in CLL and are associated with poor clinical outcome [28]. In particular, the majority of mutations in SF3B1 have been identified inside the conserved C-terminal domain. SF3B1 is an essential component of the splicing machinery, where it is involved in the removal of introns from precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA). Due to this role, SF3B1 mutations affect the splicing of pre-mRNA. Consistent with this, several cases of altered splicing have been detected in CLL with SF3B1 mutations. More in depth, it has been observed that mutations of SF3B1 do not impair splicing in an aspecific manner, but it seems to affect only a few specific targets, including the forkhead box P1 (FOXP1) a forkhead transcription factor (Figure 1) [29].

2.5. RPS15 Mutations

40S ribosomal protein S15 is ribosomal proteins encoded by the RPS15 gene, involved in the regulation of the MDM2–p53 axis and proteosomal degradation of p53 [30]. RPS15 mutations have been identified in newly diagnosed, untreated CLL, but also in 20% of relapsed patients [31]. Unfortunately, the molecular mechanisms between the RPS15 mutations and CLL pathogenesis are unclear. Using the 293t cellular model and the CLL cell line MEC-1, Bretones and colleagues demonstrated that RPS15 mutations affect the stability of RPS15 protein. In addition, some RPS15 mutations are involved in ribosome biogenesis defects. Furthermore, it has been observed that the pathways perturbed by RPS15 mutations are different according to the cellular model used, including metabolic reprogramming toward the Warburg effect (Figure 1) [32].

2.6. BIRC3 Mutations

BIRC3 (baculoviral IAP repeat containing 3) is a recurrently mutated gene in CLL [33]. Both monoallelic deletions and/or truncating mutations have been reported. These abnormalities impact on BIRC3 functions as the ubiquitin ligase of NIK, an activator of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) pathway, therefore ultimately favoring NF-κB activation [34]. As a consequence of enhanced p65 activity, an increase in mRNA expression of Bcl-2, Bcl-XL, and the Induced myeloid leukemia cell differentiation protein (Mcl-1) have been observed. Importantly, these findings suggest a possible different sensitivity to treatment with agents targeting Bcl-2 and/or Bcl-XL.

2.7. NFKBIE Mutations

The Nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor, epsilon, also known as NFKBIE gene, which encodes for the Inhibitor of kappa B epsilon IκBε, a negative feedback regulator of NF-κB, is found mutated in 1–3% of CLL patients [35,36,37]. NFKBIE is associated with the reduction of IκBε protein, which in turn favors p65-NF-κB activation. Moreover, IκBε loss was associated with increased B cell proliferation and survival upon immune system activation in mouse. In particular, it was demonstrated that B cells purified from mixed splenocytes collected from IκBε−/− mice and stimulated with Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) displayed increased expansion compared to wild type B cells. In accordance with the inhibitory activity of IκBε against NF-κB, IκBε−/− B cells increased expression of NF-κB target genes. More specifically, LPS stimulation in IκBε−/− B cells induced interleukin IL-6 expression, which in turn was associated with RelA hyperactivation [38].

2.8. POT1 Mutations

Telomeric changes are recognized as occurring in CLL, playing a prognostic role [39]. Among the complex family of genes involved in telomere formation [40], protection of telomers 1 (POT1) was found mutated in 3% of CLL patients and also in few cases of RS [41,42]. The lack of POT1 was associated with the development of telomeric and chromosomal abnormalities, caused by the inability of the cells to engage a DNA damage response [41]. POT1 is a component of the telomerase ribonucleoprotein (RNP), essential for the replication and the regulation of telomere termini. Interestingly, using immunofluorescence microscopy analysis, Ramsay and colleagues established that mutated POT1 promotes its co-localization with the telomere-binding proteins (TRF). Mutated POT1 induces dysfunctional telomeric phenotype characterized by elongated and unprotected telomere ends that are responsible for chromosomal alterations.

2.9. RARRES3 Deletion

The deletion of the retinoic acid receptor responder 3 gene (RARRES3) is associated with 11q22 deletion. RARRES3 controls cell growth in a manner closed to retinoid acid [43]. RARRES3 expression appeared mostly downmodulated in advanced CLL stages and appeared involved in CLL progression.

2.10. Rare Events

Various other tumor suppressor genes have been found mutated in CLL. The cell cycle inhibitors CDKN1B, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1B (p27Kip1), and CDKN2A, coding for p16INK4a, an inhibitor of cell cycle, as well as p14arf, the negative regulator of MDM2, were found mutated in CLL [12]. Despite being rarely mutated in CLL, the analysis of CDKN2A locus revealed that CDKN2A losses are commonly detectable in RS [44]. F-box/WD repeat-containing protein 7, FBXW7, mediator complex subunit 12 (MED12), and spen family transcriptional repressor (SPEN), three tumor suppressors associated with the regulation of the NOTCH1 pathway, were also identified as being mutated with low frequency in CLL. In particular, FBXW7 and MED12 mutations prevent proteasomal degradation of NOTCH1, whereas SPEN interferes with NOTCH1 signaling [45,46,47]. Interestingly, the homozygous deletion of the SPEN gene was found at RS diagnosis [48]. The tumor suppressors Paired box protein (Pax5), protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTPN1), and chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 2 (CHD2) were also identified among mutated genes in CLL [49].

3. Mechanisms of Tumor Suppressor Inactivation in CLL: Functional Inactivation through Post-Translational Mechanisms

This section will focus on genetically wild-type tumor suppressors whose functions are affected at a post-translational level (Figure 1).

3.1. PTEN

The tumor suppressor PTEN is one of the most frequently mutated/deleted tumor suppressors in cancer [50]. Besides genetic impairment, it is worth noting that PTEN inactivation is also favored by post-translational modifications and/or changes in protein compartmentalization [51,52,53]. In particular, PTEN was shown to lose various tumor suppressive functions when aberrantly delocalized in the cells, through changes in mono-ubiquitination [54,55] and sumoylation [56]. Although cytoplasmic/membrane-bound PTEN can modulate PI3-kinase signaling, nuclear PTEN has been found to play a tumor suppressive role by modulating genomic stability, proliferation, and survival through the interaction with other targets [57]. Recently, we demonstrated that Ubiquitin-specific-processing protease 7 (USP7) is aberrantly expressed in CLL, favoring the deubiquitination of PTEN [58]. More precisely, CLL samples mostly expressed the serine-18 USP7 isoform that can be regulated by casein kinase II-mediated phosphorylation. Consequently, PTEN is deubiquitinated, inducing the loss of its nuclear compartmentalization. Treatment with USP7 inhibitor P5091 promotes PTEN re-localization into the nucleus. PTEN was also shown to be functionally inactivated in CLL through tail phosphorylation by casein kinase II (CK2) [59]. In particular, CK2 and PTEN physically interact, and CK2 mediates its phosphorylation at the C-tail residues, leading to blockade of PTEN phosphatase activity. Pten inactivation is essential for maintenance of CLL cell viability. Therefore, inhibition of CK2 resulted in promoting CLL apoptosis [60,61], as reviewed and described in other cancers [59,62].

3.2. p53

As we have previously discussed, genetic aberrations of the tumor suppressor TP53 are relevant in CLL pathogenesis [63]. Parallel to genetic modifications, it is known that p53 functions can be modulated by various post-translational modifications [64]. In particular, mono- and poly-ubiquitination are known to affect the localization and/or the stability of the tumor suppressor p53. In particular p53 de-ubiquitination by USP7 was shown to modulate its nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling. Due to the ability of p53 to modulate the expression of various pro-apoptotic genes, the removal of p53 from the nucleus is undoubtedly a mechanism of tumor suppressor inactivation. As we discussed before, USP7 was shown to be over-expressed in various CLL patients. Besides its ability to modulate PTEN compartmentalization, USP7 aberrant expression was investigated for its ability to modulate the localization and stability of p53.

3.3. Puma

Together with Noxa and Bin, p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis (Puma) is a BH3 protein controlled by p53 that is able to contribute to the p53-mediated apoptosis [65]. Besides its activity as a transcriptional factor, p53 has also been shown to regulate apoptosis through a non-transcriptional process. In particular, p53 protein binds to the antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins at the mitochondria, favoring apoptosis [66,67,68]. Such a complex process was also shown to be activated in CLL cells [69], allowing them affect apoptosis responses to chemotherapy. Other authors have also demonstrated that Puma levels may have a prognostic role in CLL. In more detail, it has been described that Puma upregulation after treatment with fludarabine was strictly related not only to p53 but also to IGVH mutation status. Further study is necessary to link p53-mediated Puma upregulation and IGVH mutation status in CLL [70,71].

4. Mechanisms of Tumor Suppressor Inactivation in CLL: Epigenetic

Genome and epigenome are intimately connected in cancer development, and the interplay of genomic and epigenomic factors plays a major role in CLL pathogenesis as well. In a recent analysis of the epigenomic landscape, various aberrations of the epigenome have emerged as markers in CLL pathogenesis [72,73]. However, it is also worth noting that methylation is a process that may occur both in normal and pathological hemopoiesis. In this respect, the methylome of normal B cell maturation and of CLL was solved and compared [74]. In this impressive work, the panel of hypermethylated genes from the CLL dataset appeared closed to those observed during normal B cell maturation, suggesting the methylation may not be considered as a driving force in CLL tumorigenesis. However, with that in mind, an aberrant methylation programming was also observed in CLL, affecting various genes, including Activator protein 1 (AP-1), Early B-Cell Factor 1 (EBF1), and Runt-related transcription factor 3 (RUNX3) (Figure 1).

4.1. Promoters’ Hypermethylation

The methylation of a gene promoter allows for the modulation of the expression of various genes. Notably, such a mechanism of gene regulation has been linked to CLL pathogenesis [75], although some concerns on this mechanism should be raised, as previously described [74]. Moreover, recent evidence also highlights the fact that methylome changes in response to chemoimmunotherapy treatments. In this respect, epigenetic evolution has been observed in relapsed patients compared to pre-treated patients [76]. However, various tumor suppressor genes have been described as being highly methylated, with a correlation to disease stages and/or prognosis, including the Krüppel-like factor 4 (KLF4) gene [77], p15 [78], and Patched (PTCH) [79]. The tumor suppressor PHLPP1 (phosphatase PH domain leucin-rich repeat protein phosphatase) is an important tumor suppressor that directly regulates the Protein kinase B (PKB), also known as Akt kinase [80]. Alteration in PHLPP1 mRNA levels have been observed in a great portion of CLL patients where Akt signaling was further augmented [81]. PHLPP1 downmodulation in CLL was associated with methylation at the end of exon 1 [82]. Recent findings suggest a possible role of NOTCH1 mutations in affecting methylation promoter status. Specifically, Arruga and colleagues, using Mec-1/NOTCH1 knock-out KO and expressing wild-type or mutant NICD, demonstrated that NOTCH1 PEST-domain mutations regulated Dual specificity protein phosphatase (DUSP22) promoter methylation and consequently its expression. DUSP22 is a phosphatase able to modulate mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family members and inactivate Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3). Accordingly, Mec-1 expressing NOTCH1 PEST-domain mutation showed methylation of the DUSP22 promoter and high levels of STAT3, which in turn induces CCR7 (C-C chemokine receptor type 7) expression and CCL19 (Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 19)-driven chemotaxis [83].

4.2. Intronic Polyadenylation

Parallel to genetic aberrations involving genomic DNA, meaning DNA mutations and gross chromosomal aberrations, abnormalities in RNA processing may promote tumorigenesis as well [84]. Among these processes involved in RNA maturation, intronic polyadenylation (IPA) allows for the generation of truncated mRNA molecules the modify transcriptome, even if originating from the same wild-type gene. Therefore, IPA was shown to favor the maturation of cells from the immune system. Recently, IPA was shown to play a pivotal role in CLL, particularly as a mechanism of inactivation of various tumor suppressor, irrespective of their genetic status [85].

5. Mechanisms of Tumor Suppressor Inactivation in CLL: MicroRNA (miRNA), Long Non-Coding RNA (lncRNA), and CircularRNA

The interest of the scientific community on the genetic “dark matter” of our genome has emerged recently. Indeed, only in 2012 and thanks to extraordinary effort of the Encode consortium has there been a clear demonstration that the vast majority of our genome is transcribed in long non-coding RNA molecules (lncRNAs, > 200 nts), including also pseudogenes and microRNAs (miRNAs) [86]. More recently, another abundant class of RNA regulatory transcript has been described—circular RNAs (circRNAs). This category of RNA molecules is particular abundant, as circRNAs can derive from both coding and non-coding RNA (ncRNA) transcripts [87]. Extensive whole genomic sequencing of CLL primary samples have raised the relevance of alteration in the non-coding sequences of CLL genomes [14].

5.1. miRNA

A pivotal contribution on this topic has been provided by Croce’s group. In 2002, they identified in the chromosome 13q14 region, a portion frequently deleted in B-CLL, two miRNAs, miR-15, and miR16 that act as oncosuppressors in this malignancy. This miRNA cluster regulates, at the post-transcriptional level, different oncogenes including the myeloid cell leukemia 1 (MCL1) and the B cell CLL/B cell lymphoma 2 (BCL2), which exert an oncogenic function in this hematological disorder [88]. It worth noting that another oncosuppressor miRNA cluster, miR-34a/b, is located in a different deleted region, the 11q. This cluster controls zeta-associated protein (ZAP70) levels, a critical prognostic marker for CLL patients [20]. Notably, both miR34a/b and miR-15/16 expression is under the direct transcriptional regulation of p53 [20,89], supporting the relevance of these clusters in cancer pathogenesis. Moreover, the 11q region is also frequently hypermethylated in CLL, defining an additional mechanism for the inactivation of miR34a/b in this disease [90]. Furthermore, miR-181b is commonly decreased in CLL samples with progressive disease. miR-181b regulates T-cell leukemia/lymphoma protein 1 (TCL1), which is involved in the aggressive form of CLL. Moreover, miR-181b-responsive elements are observed in the 3’-UTR (untranslated regions) of the anti-apoptotic genes BCL2 and MCL1. Accordingly, miR-181b down-regulation inversely correlates with the expression of these genes, which are up-regulated in CLL patients with progressive disease. Due the important role of miR-181b in the regulation of these three key genes, it was considered as a unique biomarker for CLL monitoring [91,92,93].
Another miRNA with tumor suppressive activity in the CLL context is miR-34a (a microRNA involved in the p53 pathway). This miRNA is significantly down-modulated in several cases of refractory disease. Moreover, very low levels of miR-34a are observed in cases of the 17p deletion end/or TP53 mutation [94]. Among miRNAs deregulated in CLL, the miR-29 family has been described as down-regulated in aggressive B-CLL. miR-29 strongly regulates TCL1 and plays an important role in the pathogenesis and aggressiveness of tumorigenic cells [95]. Finally, the role of miR-26 in cancer is more controversial, but its delivery in the Eμ-TCL1 transgenic (TCL1-tg) model of CLL is anti-leukemic [96]. Lastly, it is worth noting that one of the most frequent non-coding lesions include mutations in the 3’-UTR of NOTCH1 and mutations in a specific enhancer of chromosome 9q13.

5.2. LncRNAs

LncRNAs represent another heterogeneous family of ncRNA molecules that play a role in CLL malignancy [97]. Additionally, in this context, p53 modulates the expression of different lncRNAs, thus revealing a p53-lncRNA tumor suppressor signature that characterizes CLL pathogenesis [97,98]. Among these, the lncRNAs nuclear enriched abundant transcript 1 (NEAT1) and long-intergenic ncRNA p21 (lincRNA-p21) are involved in the DNA damage response in CLL and modulate apoptosis only in the presence of a functional p53. Because lincRNAp21 modulates in cys p21, its expression directly correlates with p21 levels in CLL patients [99]. Moreover, circulating lincRNA-p21 levels decrease in CLL patients, especially in advanced disease [100]. Interestingly, the frequent deleted region 13q14.3 also includes two lncRNAs, DLEU1 and a variant DLEU2. In contrast to the DLEU2 region containing the miR15/16 cluster, which is down-modulated in CLL, the lncRNA DLEU1 and DLEU2/Alt1 loci are demethylated and thus upregulated in CLL, defining a complex ncRNA interplay in this chromosomal region [101]. Recently, it has also been shown that the tumor suppressor lncRNA BM742401 is inactivated by DNA methylation in CLL. Interestingly, BM742401 methylation correlates with a high Rai stage. More specifically, BM742401 over-expression in CLL cell lines induces cell cycle arrest and enhances cell apoptosis through caspase-9 [102].

5.3. CircRNAs

CircRNAs originate from a process called back-splicing, which involves both coding and ncRNA transcripts. Mechanistically, circRNAs modulate gene function at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional level [103]. Recent evidence supports a critical role of circRNA in tumorigenesis [104], and their implications in CLL are now emerging. For instance, circ_0132266, a circRNA down-modulated in CLL, acts as a miRNA sponge for promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML), and thus modulates cell viability [105].

6. Therapeutic Implications

The role of tumor suppressors in cancer pathogenesis and maintenance has dramatically changed from essential and untouchable actors to potentially selective bullets able to promote cancer cell suicide, if turned on. It is worth mentioning that the most powerful pro-apoptotic signal in cancer is the reactivation of tumor suppressors themselves [106,107]. For instance, the restoration of p53 expression in mouse was shown as the most efficient approach to force cancer exhaustion [107]. Only few years ago, however, tumor suppressors did not appear targetable, unless through indirect approaches. For example, in the case of PTEN deletion, one could administrate PI3-kinase inhibitors to block the increased phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-triphosphate (PIP3) signaling; however, they would lack the possibility of targeting the PI3K-independent functions of PTEN.
Luckily, the involvement of tumor suppressors in cancer is substantially changed. Tumor suppressors are no longer important in cancer pathogenesis only when mutated or deleted, but are also important when functionally inactive by changes in levels, cellular localization, or by post-translational modifications [10,108,109]. In such a respect, various functionally inactive tumor suppressors can be potentially turned on. In the CLL context, clear examples of these opportunities are p53 reactivation with the Mdm2 inhibitors [110,111,112] (Figure 2). Mdm2 inhibitors such as RG7112, RG7388, and nutlin-3a induce non-genotoxic activation of p53, thus stabilizing and transcriptionally activating it. In the same way, modulation of USP7 activity by HBX19818 and P5091 inhibitors can restore both p53 and PTEN activity [58,113]. Inhibition of CK2 could be used to reactivate PTEN. In particular, CK2 inhibitors induce CLL apoptosis by reducing the activity of Protein Kinase C (PKCβ) and PKCδ, two downstream factors of PI3K, and preventing PTEN phosphorylation, thus stabilizing PTEN. CK2 inhibition also reduces USP7 activity, which in turn is responsible for PTEN nuclear loss of function [114].
It is also possible to speculate on the use of drugs that can prevent the export of pre-mRNA aberrant events generated by SF3B1 mutations to the cytoplasm. In this regard, the use of FR901464 or spliceostatin A inhibit in vitro splicing generated by SF3B mutation [115]. Finally, the inhibition of NOTCH1 on the basis of the use of molecules that block its proteolytic cut (γ-secretase inhibitors (GSIs)) or humanized antibodies (OMP-52M51) may also be re-activated by tumor suppressors inhibited by its activity. Further analyses are, however, advisable to achieve a better comprehension of the role of functional inactivation of tumor suppressors in CLL and on the strategies to reactivate them.

7. Conclusions

The massive parallel sequencing of coding and non-coding genome of hundreds of CLL samples were reported, together with methylome and comparative analyses with normal B cell development. Such analyses have raised some important points: (i) the classical aberrations on coding genomic DNA are only one aspect of CLL pathogenesis, (ii) changes in non-coding DNA are equally relevant in CLL pathogenesis, (iii) DNA methylation is a more complex modification that must be reconsidered in CLL as well as in normal B cell development, and (iv) various tumor suppressors are functionally impaired irrespective of to their genetic status. Consequently, if on one hand mechanisms of CLL development and maintenance appear much more complex than originally stated, on the other hand these new investigations have raised new options from the therapeutic standpoint and hope to achieve CLL eradication.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: A.M.; writing G.A., G.C., R.T., and A.M.; review and editing: M.B., M.F.L., and B.M.; generating images, G.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Ricerca Locale, Depatment of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin to A.M., and Associazione Italiana Ricerca Cancro (AIRC) Start-Up grant-15405 to R.T.

Acknowledgments

We thank all members of the Internal Medicine—Hematology of San Luigi Hospital for discussions.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Nabhan, C.; Rosen, S.T. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia: A clinical review. JAMA 2014, 312, 2265–2276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  2. Rai, K.R.; Jain, P. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)-Then and now. Am. J. Hematol. 2016, 91, 330–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Hallek, M.; Cheson, B.D.; Catovsky, D.; Caligaris-Cappio, F.; Dighiero, G.; Döhner, H.; Hillmen, P.; Keating, M.; Montserrat, E.; Chiorazzi, N.; et al. iwCLL guidelines for diagnosis, indications for treatment, response assessment, and supportive management of CLL. Blood 2018, 131, 2745–2760. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  4. Weisberger, J.; Wu, C.D.; Liu, Z.; Wong, J.Y.; Melamed, M.R.; Darzynkiewicz, Z.; Gorczyca, W. Differential diagnosis of malignant lymphomas and related disorders by specific pattern of expression of immunophenotypic markers revealed by multiparameter flow cytometry (Review). Int. J. Oncol. 2000, 17, 1165–1177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Parikh, S.A. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia treatment algorithm 2018. Blood Cancer J. 2018, 8, 93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Molica, S.; Matutes, E.; Tam, C.; Polliack, A. Ibrutinib in the treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia: 5 years on. Hematol. Oncol. 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Von Keudell, G.; Moskowitz, A.J. The Role of PI3K Inhibition in Lymphoid Malignancies. Curr. Hematol. Malig. Rep. 2019, 14, 405–413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Eradat, H. Venetoclax for the Treatment of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia. Curr. Hematol. Malig. Rep. 2019, 14, 469–476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Rossi, D.; Khiabanian, H.; Spina, V.; Ciardullo, C.; Bruscaggin, A.; Famà, R.; Rasi, S.; Monti, S.; Deambrogi, C.; De Paoli, L.; et al. Clinical impact of small TP53 mutated subclones in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 2014, 123, 2139–2147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Berger, A.H.; Knudson, A.G.; Pandolfi, P.P. A continuum model for tumour suppression. Nature 2011, 476, 163–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Salmena, L.; Pandolfi, P.P. Changing venues for tumour suppression: Balancing destruction and localization by monoubiquitylation. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2007, 7, 409–413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Landau, D.A.; Tausch, E.; Taylor-Weiner, A.N.; Stewart, C.; Reiter, J.G.; Bahlo, J.; Kluth, S.; Bozic, I.; Lawrence, M.; Böttcher, S.; et al. Mutations driving CLL and their evolution in progression and relapse. Nature 2015, 526, 525–530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  13. Puente, X.S.; Pinyol, M.; Quesada, V.; Conde, L.; Ordóñez, G.R.; Villamor, N.; Escaramis, G.; Jares, P.; Beà, S.; González-Díaz, M.; et al. Whole-genome sequencing identifies recurrent mutations in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Nature 2011, 475, 101–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  14. Puente, X.S.; Beà, S.; Valdés-Mas, R.; Villamor, N.; Gutiérrez-Abril, J.; Martín-Subero, J.I.; Munar, M.; Rubio-Pérez, C.; Jares, P.; Aymerich, M.; et al. Non-coding recurrent mutations in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Nature 2015, 526, 519–524. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Garg, R.; Wierda, W.; Ferrajoli, A.; Abruzzo, L.; Pierce, S.; Lerner, S.; Keating, M.; O’Brien, S. The prognostic difference of monoallelic versus biallelic deletion of 13q in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Cancer 2012, 118, 3531–3537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. Pekarsky, Y.; Croce, C.M. Role of miR-15/16 in CLL. Cell Death Differ. 2015, 22, 6–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Klein, U.; Lia, M.; Crespo, M.; Siegel, R.; Shen, Q.; Mo, T.; Ambesi-Impiombato, A.; Califano, A.; Migliazza, A.; Bhagat, G.; et al. The DLEU2/miR-15a/16-1 Cluster Controls B Cell Proliferation and Its Deletion Leads to Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia. Cancer Cell 2010, 17, 28–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Rossi, D.; Gaidano, G. The clinical implications of gene mutations in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Br. J. Cancer 2016, 114, 849–854. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  19. Pekarsky, Y.; Balatti, V.; Croce, C.M. BCL2 and miR-15/16: From gene discovery to treatment. Cell Death Differ. 2018, 25, 21–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Fabbri, M.; Bottoni, A.; Shimizu, M.; Spizzo, R.; Nicoloso, M.S.; Rossi, S.; Barbarotto, E.; Cimmino, A.; Adair, B.; Wojcik, S.E.; et al. Association of a microRNA/TP53 feedback circuitry with pathogenesis and outcome of B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia. JAMA 2011, 305, 59–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Lin, K.; Farahani, M.; Yang, Y.; Johnson, G.G.; Oates, M.; Atherton, M.; Douglas, A.; Kalakonda, N.; Pettitt, A.R. Loss of MIR15A and MIR16-1 at 13q14 is associated with increased TP53 mRNA, de-repression of BCL2 and adverse outcome in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Br. J. Haematol. 2014, 167, 346–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Rampazzo, E.; Bojnik, E.; Trentin, L.; Bonaldi, L.; Del Bianco, P.; Frezzato, F.; Visentin, A.; Facco, M.; Semenzato, G.; De Rossi, A. Role of miR-15a/miR-16-1 and the TP53 axis in regulating telomerase expression in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Haematologica 2017, 102, e253–e256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  23. Muller, P.A.J.; Vousden, K.H. p53 mutations in cancer. Nat. Cell Biol. 2013, 15, 2–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Buccheri, V.; Barreto, W.G.; Fogliatto, L.M.; Capra, M.; Marchiani, M.; Rocha, V. Prognostic and therapeutic stratification in CLL: Focus on 17p deletion and p53 mutation. Ann. Hematol. 2018, 97, 2269–2278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Malcikova, J.; Tausch, E.; Rossi, D.; Sutton, L.A.; Soussi, T.; Zenz, T.; Kater, A.P.; Niemann, C.U.; Gonzalez, D.; Davi, F.; et al. ERIC recommendations for TP53 mutation analysis in chronic lymphocytic leukemia-update on methodological approaches and results interpretation. Leukemia 2018, 32, 1070–1080. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Rossi, D.; Spina, V.; Gaidano, G. Biology and treatment of Richter syndrome. Blood 2018, 131, 2761–2772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  27. Stagni, V.; Cirotti, C.; Barilà, D. Ataxia-Telangiectasia Mutated Kinase in the Control of Oxidative Stress, Mitochondria, and Autophagy in Cancer: A Maestro With a Large Orchestra. Front. Oncol. 2018, 8, 73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Wan, Y.; Wu, C.J. SF3B1 mutations in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 2013, 121, 4627–4634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Quesada, V.; Conde, L.; Villamor, N.; Ordóñez, G.R.; Jares, P.; Bassaganyas, L.; Ramsay, A.J.; Beà, S.; Pinyol, M.; Martínez-Trillos, A.; et al. Exome sequencing identifies recurrent mutations of the splicing factor SF3B1 gene in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Nat. Genet. 2011, 44, 47–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Daftuar, L.; Zhu, Y.; Jacq, X.; Prives, C. Ribosomal proteins RPL37, RPS15 and RPS20 regulate the Mdm2-p53-MdmX network. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e68667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Ljungström, V.; Cortese, D.; Young, E.; Pandzic, T.; Mansouri, L.; Plevova, K.; Ntoufa, S.; Baliakas, P.; Clifford, R.; Sutton, L.-A.; et al. Whole-exome sequencing in relapsing chronic lymphocytic leukemia: Clinical impact of recurrent RPS15 mutations. Blood 2016, 127, 1007–1016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Bretones, G.; Álvarez, M.G.; Arango, J.R.; Rodríguez, D.; Nadeu, F.; Prado, M.A.; Valdés-Mas, R.; Puente, D.A.; Paulo, J.A.; Delgado, J.; et al. Altered patterns of global protein synthesis and translational fidelity in RPS15-mutated chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 2018, 132, 2375–2388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  33. Diop, F.; Moia, R.; Favini, C.; Spaccarotella, E.; De Paoli, L.; Bruscaggin, A.; Spina, V.; Terzi-di-Bergamo, L.; Arruga, F.; Tarantelli, C.; et al. Biological and clinical implications of BIRC3 mutations in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Haematologica 2019, 105, 448–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  34. Asslaber, D.; Wacht, N.; Leisch, M.; Qi, Y.; Maeding, N.; Hufnagl, C.; Jansko, B.; Zaborsky, N.; Villunger, A.; Hartmann, T.N.; et al. BIRC3 Expression Predicts CLL Progression and Defines Treatment Sensitivity via Enhanced NF-κB Nuclear Translocation. Clin. Cancer Res. 2019, 25, 1901–1912. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  35. Damm, F.; Mylonas, E.; Cosson, A.; Yoshida, K.; Della Valle, V.; Mouly, E.; Diop, M.; Scourzic, L.; Shiraishi, Y.; Chiba, K.; et al. Acquired initiating mutations in early hematopoietic cells of CLL patients. Cancer Discov. 2014, 4, 1088–1101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Doménech, E.; Gómez-López, G.; Gzlez-Peña, D.; López, M.; Herreros, B.; Menezes, J.; Gómez-Lozano, N.; Carro, A.; Graña, O.; Pisano, D.G.; et al. New mutations in chronic lymphocytic leukemia identified by target enrichment and deep sequencing. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e38158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  37. Mansouri, L.; Sutton, L.-A.; Ljungström, V.; Bondza, S.; Arngården, L.; Bhoi, S.; Larsson, J.; Cortese, D.; Kalushkova, A.; Plevova, K.; et al. Functional loss of IκBε leads to NF-κB deregulation in aggressive chronic lymphocytic leukemia. J. Exp. Med. 2015, 212, 833–843. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Alves, B.N.; Tsui, R.; Almaden, J.; Shokhirev, M.N.; Davis-Turak, J.; Fujimoto, J.; Birnbaum, H.; Ponomarenko, J.; Hoffmann, A. IκBε is a key regulator of B cell expansion by providing negative feedback on cRel and RelA in a stimulus-specific manner. J. Immunol. 2014, 192, 3121–3132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  39. Poncet, D.; Belleville, A.; t’kint de Roodenbeke, C.; Roborel de Climens, A.; Ben Simon, E.; Merle-Beral, H.; Callet-Bauchu, E.; Salles, G.; Sabatier, L.; Delic, J.; et al. Changes in the expression of telomere maintenance genes suggest global telomere dysfunction in B-chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 2008, 111, 2388–2391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. Smith, E.M.; Pendlebury, D.F.; Nandakumar, J. Structural biology of telomeres and telomerase. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Ramsay, A.J.; Quesada, V.; Foronda, M.; Conde, L.; Martínez-Trillos, A.; Villamor, N.; Rodríguez, D.; Kwarciak, A.; Garabaya, C.; Gallardo, M.; et al. POT1 mutations cause telomere dysfunction in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Nat. Genet. 2013, 45, 526–530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Landau, D.A.; Carter, S.L.; Stojanov, P.; McKenna, A.; Stevenson, K.; Lawrence, M.S.; Sougnez, C.; Stewart, C.; Sivachenko, A.; Wang, L.; et al. Evolution and impact of subclonal mutations in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Cell 2013, 152, 714–726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  43. DiSepio, D.; Ghosn, C.; Eckert, R.L.; Deucher, A.; Robinson, N.; Duvic, M.; Chandraratna, R.A.; Nagpal, S. Identification and characterization of a retinoid-induced class II tumor suppressor/growth regulatory gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1998, 95, 14811–14815. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  44. Fabbri, G.; Khiabanian, H.; Holmes, A.B.; Wang, J.; Messina, M.; Mullighan, C.G.; Pasqualucci, L.; Rabadan, R.; Dalla-Favera, R. Genetic lesions associated with chronic lymphocytic leukemia transformation to Richter syndrome. J. Exp. Med. 2013, 210, 2273–2288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  45. Wang, L.; Lawrence, M.S.; Wan, Y.; Stojanov, P.; Sougnez, C.; Stevenson, K.; Werner, L.; Sivachenko, A.; DeLuca, D.S.; Zhang, L.; et al. SF3B1 and other novel cancer genes in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011, 365, 2497–2506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Wu, B.; Słabicki, M.; Sellner, L.; Dietrich, S.; Liu, X.; Jethwa, A.; Hüllein, J.; Walther, T.; Wagner, L.; Huang, Z.; et al. MED12 mutations and NOTCH signalling in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Br. J. Haematol. 2017, 179, 421–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  47. Roos-Weil, D.; Nguyen-Khac, F.; Bernard, O.A. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia: Time to go past genomics? Am. J. Hematol. 2016, 91, 518–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Rossi, D.; Trifonov, V.; Fangazio, M.; Bruscaggin, A.; Rasi, S.; Spina, V.; Monti, S.; Vaisitti, T.; Arruga, F.; Famà, R.; et al. The coding genome of splenic marginal zone lymphoma: Activation of NOTCH2 and other pathways regulating marginal zone development. J. Exp. Med. 2012, 209, 1537–1551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  49. Fabbri, G.; Dalla-Favera, R. The molecular pathogenesis of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2016, 16, 145–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Lee, Y.-R.; Chen, M.; Pandolfi, P.P. The functions and regulation of the PTEN tumour suppressor: New modes and prospects. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2018, 19, 547–562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Carracedo, A.; Alimonti, A.; Pandolfi, P.P. PTEN level in tumor suppression: How much is too little? Cancer Res. 2011, 71, 629–633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  52. Correia, N.C.; Gírio, A.; Antunes, I.; Martins, L.R.; Barata, J.T. The multiple layers of non-genetic regulation of PTEN tumour suppressor activity. Eur. J. Cancer 2014, 50, 216–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Song, M.S.; Salmena, L.; Pandolfi, P.P. The functions and regulation of the PTEN tumour suppressor. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2012, 13, 283–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Morotti, A.; Panuzzo, C.; Crivellaro, S.; Pergolizzi, B.; Familiari, U.; Berger, A.H.; Saglio, G.; Pandolfi, P.P. BCR-ABL disrupts PTEN nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling through phosphorylation-dependent activation of HAUSP. Leukemia 2014, 28, 1326–1333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Song, M.S.; Salmena, L.; Carracedo, A.; Egia, A.; Lo-Coco, F.; Teruya-Feldstein, J.; Pandolfi, P.P. The deubiquitinylation and localization of PTEN are regulated by a HAUSP-PML network. Nature 2008, 455, 813–817. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Bassi, C.; Ho, J.; Srikumar, T.; Dowling, R.J.O.; Gorrini, C.; Miller, S.J.; Mak, T.W.; Neel, B.G.; Raught, B.; Stambolic, V. Nuclear PTEN controls DNA repair and sensitivity to genotoxic stress. Science 2013, 341, 395–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  57. Ho, J.; Cruise, E.S.; Dowling, R.J.O.; Stambolic, V. PTEN Nuclear Functions. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect Med. 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Carrà, G.; Panuzzo, C.; Torti, D.; Parvis, G.; Crivellaro, S.; Familiari, U.; Volante, M.; Morena, D.; Lingua, M.F.; Brancaccio, M.; et al. Therapeutic inhibition of USP7-PTEN network in chronic lymphocytic leukemia: A strategy to overcome TP53 mutated/deleted clones. Oncotarget 2017, 8, 35508–35522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  59. Barata, J.T. The impact of PTEN regulation by CK2 on PI3K-dependent signaling and leukemia cell survival. Adv. Enzyme Regul. 2011, 51, 37–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Martins, L.R.; Lúcio, P.; Silva, M.C.; Anderes, K.L.; Gameiro, P.; Silva, M.G.; Barata, J.T. Targeting CK2 overexpression and hyperactivation as a novel therapeutic tool in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 2010, 116, 2724–2731. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Shehata, M.; Schnabl, S.; Demirtas, D.; Hilgarth, M.; Hubmann, R.; Ponath, E.; Badrnya, S.; Lehner, C.; Hoelbl, A.; Duechler, M.; et al. Reconstitution of PTEN activity by CK2 inhibitors and interference with the PI3-K/Akt cascade counteract the antiapoptotic effect of human stromal cells in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 2010, 116, 2513–2521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Morotti, A.; Panuzzo, C.; Crivellaro, S.; Carrà, G.; Fava, C.; Guerrasio, A.; Pandolfi, P.P.; Saglio, G. BCR-ABL inactivates cytosolic PTEN through Casein Kinase II mediated tail phosphorylation. Cell Cycle 2015, 14, 973–979. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Wang, C.; Wang, X. The role of TP53 network in the pathogenesis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol. 2013, 6, 1223–1229. [Google Scholar]
  64. Bode, A.M.; Dong, Z. Post-translational modification of p53 in tumorigenesis. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2004, 4, 793–805. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Nakano, K.; Vousden, K.H. PUMA, a novel proapoptotic gene, is induced by p53. Mol. Cell 2001, 7, 683–694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Mihara, M.; Erster, S.; Zaika, A.; Petrenko, O.; Chittenden, T.; Pancoska, P.; Moll, U.M. p53 has a direct apoptogenic role at the mitochondria. Mol. Cell 2003, 11, 577–590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Chipuk, J.E.; Bouchier-Hayes, L.; Kuwana, T.; Newmeyer, D.D.; Green, D.R. PUMA couples the nuclear and cytoplasmic proapoptotic function of p53. Science 2005, 309, 1732–1735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Chipuk, J.E.; Kuwana, T.; Bouchier-Hayes, L.; Droin, N.M.; Newmeyer, D.D.; Schuler, M.; Green, D.R. Direct activation of Bax by p53 mediates mitochondrial membrane permeabilization and apoptosis. Science 2004, 303, 1010–1014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  69. Steele, A.J.; Prentice, A.G.; Hoffbrand, A.V.; Yogashangary, B.C.; Hart, S.M.; Nacheva, E.P.; Howard-Reeves, J.D.; Duke, V.M.; Kottaridis, P.D.; Cwynarski, K.; et al. p53-mediated apoptosis of CLL cells: Evidence for a transcription-independent mechanism. Blood 2008, 112, 3827–3834. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Mackus, W.J.M.; Kater, A.P.; Grummels, A.; Evers, L.M.; Hooijbrink, B.; Kramer, M.H.H.; Castro, J.E.; Kipps, T.J.; van Lier, R.A.W.; van Oers, M.H.J.; et al. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells display p53-dependent drug-induced Puma upregulation. Leukemia 2005, 19, 427–434. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Zhu, H.-J.; Liu, L.; Fan, L.; Zhang, L.-N.; Fang, C.; Zou, Z.-J.; Li, J.-Y.; Xu, W. The BH3-only protein Puma plays an essential role in p53-mediated apoptosis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells. Leuk. Lymphoma 2013, 54, 2712–2719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Beekman, R.; Chapaprieta, V.; Russiñol, N.; Vilarrasa-Blasi, R.; Verdaguer-Dot, N.; Martens, J.H.A.; Duran-Ferrer, M.; Kulis, M.; Serra, F.; Javierre, B.M.; et al. The reference epigenome and regulatory chromatin landscape of chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Nat. Med. 2018, 24, 868–880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Gaiti, F.; Chaligne, R.; Gu, H.; Brand, R.M.; Kothen-Hill, S.; Schulman, R.C.; Grigorev, K.; Risso, D.; Kim, K.-T.; Pastore, A.; et al. Epigenetic evolution and lineage histories of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Nature 2019, 569, 576–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Oakes, C.C.; Seifert, M.; Assenov, Y.; Gu, L.; Przekopowitz, M.; Ruppert, A.S.; Wang, Q.; Imbusch, C.D.; Serva, A.; Koser, S.D.; et al. DNA methylation dynamics during B cell maturation underlie a continuum of disease phenotypes in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Nat. Genet. 2016, 48, 253–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Heidari, N.; Abroun, S.; Bertacchini, J.; Vosoughi, T.; Rahim, F.; Saki, N. Significance of Inactivated Genes in Leukemia: Pathogenesis and Prognosis. Cell J. 2017, 19, 9–26. [Google Scholar]
  76. Tsagiopoulou, M.; Papakonstantinou, N.; Moysiadis, T.; Mansouri, L.; Ljungström, V.; Duran-Ferrer, M.; Malousi, A.; Queirós, A.C.; Plevova, K.; Bhoi, S.; et al. DNA methylation profiles in chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients treated with chemoimmunotherapy. Clin. Epigenetics 2019, 11, 177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  77. Filarsky, K.; Garding, A.; Becker, N.; Wolf, C.; Zucknick, M.; Claus, R.; Weichenhan, D.; Plass, C.; Döhner, H.; Stilgenbauer, S.; et al. Krüppel-like factor 4 (KLF4) inactivation in chronic lymphocytic leukemia correlates with promoter DNA-methylation and can be reversed by inhibition of NOTCH signaling. Haematologica 2016, 101, e249–e253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Papageorgiou, S.G.; Lambropoulos, S.; Pappa, V.; Economopoulou, C.; Kontsioti, F.; Papageorgiou, E.; Tsirigotis, P.; Dervenoulas, J.; Economopoulos, T. Hypermethylation of the p15INK4B gene promoter in B-chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Am. J. Hematol. 2007, 82, 824–825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Schmidt-Wolf, I.G.H.; Plass, C.; Byrd, J.C.; Frevel, K.; Pietsch, T.; Waha, A. Assessment of Promoter Methylation Identifies PTCH as a Putative Tumor-suppressor Gene in Human CLL. Anticancer Res. 2016, 36, 4515–4519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  80. Gao, T.; Furnari, F.; Newton, A.C. PHLPP: A phosphatase that directly dephosphorylates Akt, promotes apoptosis, and suppresses tumor growth. Mol. Cell 2005, 18, 13–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Suljagic, M.; Laurenti, L.; Tarnani, M.; Alam, M.; Malek, S.N.; Efremov, D.G. Reduced expression of the tumor suppressor PHLPP1 enhances the antiapoptotic B-cell receptor signal in chronic lymphocytic leukemia B-cells. Leukemia 2010, 24, 2063–2071. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  82. O’Hayre, M.; Niederst, M.; Fecteau, J.F.; Nguyen, V.M.; Kipps, T.J.; Messmer, D.; Newton, A.C.; Handel, T.M. Mechanisms and consequences of the loss of PHLPP1 phosphatase in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Leukemia 2012, 26, 1689–1692. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  83. Arruga, F.; Gizdic, B.; Bologna, C.; Cignetto, S.; Buonincontri, R.; Serra, S.; Vaisitti, T.; Gizzi, K.; Vitale, N.; Garaffo, G.; et al. Mutations in NOTCH1 PEST domain orchestrate CCL19-driven homing of chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells by modulating the tumor suppressor gene DUSP22. Leukemia 2017, 31, 1882–1893. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  84. Dvinge, H.; Kim, E.; Abdel-Wahab, O.; Bradley, R.K. RNA splicing factors as oncoproteins and tumour suppressors. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2016, 16, 413–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  85. Lee, S.-H.; Singh, I.; Tisdale, S.; Abdel-Wahab, O.; Leslie, C.S.; Mayr, C. Widespread intronic polyadenylation inactivates tumour suppressor genes in leukaemia. Nature 2018, 561, 127–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  86. ENCODE Project Consortium. An integrated encyclopedia of DNA elements in the human genome. Nature 2012, 489, 57–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Salzman, J. Circular RNA Expression: Its Potential Regulation and Function. Trends Genet. 2016, 32, 309–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  88. Calin, G.A.; Dumitru, C.D.; Shimizu, M.; Bichi, R.; Zupo, S.; Noch, E.; Aldler, H.; Rattan, S.; Keating, M.; Rai, K.; et al. Frequent deletions and down-regulation of micro- RNA genes miR15 and miR16 at 13q14 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2002, 99, 15524–15529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  89. Corney, D.C.; Flesken-Nikitin, A.; Godwin, A.K.; Wang, W.; Nikitin, A.Y. MicroRNA-34b and MicroRNA-34c are targets of p53 and cooperate in control of cell proliferation and adhesion-independent growth. Cancer Res. 2007, 67, 8433–8438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  90. Deneberg, S.; Kanduri, M.; Ali, D.; Bengtzen, S.; Karimi, M.; Qu, Y.; Kimby, E.; Mansouri, L.; Rosenquist, R.; Lennartsson, A.; et al. microRNA-34b/c on chromosome 11q23 is aberrantly methylated in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Epigenetics 2014, 9, 910–917. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  91. Visone, R.; Veronese, A.; Rassenti, L.Z.; Balatti, V.; Pearl, D.K.; Acunzo, M.; Volinia, S.; Taccioli, C.; Kipps, T.J.; Croce, C.M. miR-181b is a biomarker of disease progression in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 2011, 118, 3072–3079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  92. Visone, R.; Veronese, A.; Balatti, V.; Croce, C.M. MiR-181b: New perspective to evaluate disease progression in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Oncotarget 2012, 3, 195–202. [Google Scholar] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  93. Zhu, D.-X.; Zhu, W.; Fang, C.; Fan, L.; Zou, Z.-J.; Wang, Y.-H.; Liu, P.; Hong, M.; Miao, K.-R.; Liu, P.; et al. miR-181a/b significantly enhances drug sensitivity in chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells via targeting multiple anti-apoptosis genes. Carcinogenesis 2012, 33, 1294–1301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  94. Zenz, T.; Häbe, S.; Denzel, T.; Mohr, J.; Winkler, D.; Bühler, A.; Sarno, A.; Groner, S.; Mertens, D.; Busch, R.; et al. Detailed analysis of p53 pathway defects in fludarabine-refractory chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL): Dissecting the contribution of 17p deletion, TP53 mutation, p53-p21 dysfunction, and miR34a in a prospective clinical trial. Blood 2009, 114, 2589–2597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  95. Pekarsky, Y.; Santanam, U.; Cimmino, A.; Palamarchuk, A.; Efanov, A.; Maximov, V.; Volinia, S.; Alder, H.; Liu, C.-G.; Rassenti, L.; et al. Tcl1 expression in chronic lymphocytic leukemia is regulated by miR-29 and miR-181. Cancer Res. 2006, 66, 11590–11593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  96. D’Abundo, L.; Callegari, E.; Bresin, A.; Chillemi, A.; Elamin, B.K.; Guerriero, P.; Huang, X.; Saccenti, E.; Hussein, E.M.A.A.; Casciano, F.; et al. Anti-leukemic activity of microRNA-26a in a chronic lymphocytic leukemia mouse model. Oncogene 2017, 36, 6617–6626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  97. Ronchetti, D.; Manzoni, M.; Agnelli, L.; Vinci, C.; Fabris, S.; Cutrona, G.; Matis, S.; Colombo, M.; Galletti, S.; Taiana, E.; et al. lncRNA profiling in early-stage chronic lymphocytic leukemia identifies transcriptional fingerprints with relevance in clinical outcome. Blood Cancer J. 2016, 6, e468. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Grossi, E.; Sánchez, Y.; Huarte, M. Expanding the p53 regulatory network: LncRNAs take up the challenge. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2016, 1859, 200–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Blume, C.J.; Hotz-Wagenblatt, A.; Hüllein, J.; Sellner, L.; Jethwa, A.; Stolz, T.; Slabicki, M.; Lee, K.; Sharathchandra, A.; Benner, A.; et al. p53-dependent non-coding RNA networks in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Leukemia 2015, 29, 2015–2023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Isin, M.; Ozgur, E.; Cetin, G.; Erten, N.; Aktan, M.; Gezer, U.; Dalay, N. Investigation of circulating lncRNAs in B-cell neoplasms. Clin. Chim. Acta 2014, 431, 255–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Garding, A.; Bhattacharya, N.; Claus, R.; Ruppel, M.; Tschuch, C.; Filarsky, K.; Idler, I.; Zucknick, M.; Caudron-Herger, M.; Oakes, C.; et al. Epigenetic upregulation of lncRNAs at 13q14.3 in leukemia is linked to the In Cis downregulation of a gene cluster that targets NF-kB. PLoS Genet. 2013, 9, e1003373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  102. Wang, L.Q.; Wong, K.Y.; Li, Z.H.; Chim, C.S. Epigenetic silencing of tumor suppressor long non-coding RNA BM742401 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Oncotarget 2016, 7, 82400–82410. [Google Scholar] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  103. Kristensen, L.S.; Andersen, M.S.; Stagsted, L.V.W.; Ebbesen, K.K.; Hansen, T.B.; Kjems, J. The biogenesis, biology and characterization of circular RNAs. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2019, 20, 675–691. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  104. Vo, J.N.; Cieslik, M.; Zhang, Y.; Shukla, S.; Xiao, L.; Zhang, Y.; Wu, Y.-M.; Dhanasekaran, S.M.; Engelke, C.G.; Cao, X.; et al. The Landscape of Circular RNA in Cancer. Cell 2019, 176, 869–881. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  105. Wu, W.; Wu, Z.; Xia, Y.; Qin, S.; Li, Y.; Wu, J.; Liang, J.; Wang, L.; Zhu, H.; Fan, L.; et al. Downregulation of circ_0132266 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia promoted cell viability through miR-337-3p/PML axis. Aging (Albany N. Y.) 2019, 11, 3561–3573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Merkel, O.; Taylor, N.; Prutsch, N.; Staber, P.B.; Moriggl, R.; Turner, S.D.; Kenner, L. When the guardian sleeps: Reactivation of the p53 pathway in cancer. Mutat. Res. 2017, 773, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Ventura, A.; Kirsch, D.G.; McLaughlin, M.E.; Tuveson, D.A.; Grimm, J.; Lintault, L.; Newman, J.; Reczek, E.E.; Weissleder, R.; Jacks, T. Restoration of p53 function leads to tumour regression in vivo. Nature 2007, 445, 661–665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Berger, A.H.; Pandolfi, P.P. Haplo-insufficiency: A driving force in cancer. J. Pathol. 2011, 223, 137–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Wang, L.-H.; Wu, C.-F.; Rajasekaran, N.; Shin, Y.K. Loss of Tumor Suppressor Gene Function in Human Cancer: An Overview. Cell. Physiol. Biochem. 2018, 51, 2647–2693. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Andreeff, M.; Kelly, K.R.; Yee, K.; Assouline, S.; Strair, R.; Popplewell, L.; Bowen, D.; Martinelli, G.; Drummond, M.W.; Vyas, P.; et al. Results of the Phase I Trial of RG7112, a Small-Molecule MDM2 Antagonist in Leukemia. Clin. Cancer Res. 2016, 22, 868–876. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  111. Ciardullo, C.; Aptullahoglu, E.; Woodhouse, L.; Lin, W.-Y.; Wallis, J.P.; Marr, H.; Marshall, S.; Bown, N.; Willmore, E.; Lunec, J. Non-genotoxic MDM2 inhibition selectively induces a pro-apoptotic p53 gene signature in chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells. Haematologica 2019, 104, 2429–2442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  112. Kojima, K.; Konopleva, M.; McQueen, T.; O’Brien, S.; Plunkett, W.; Andreeff, M. Mdm2 inhibitor Nutlin-3a induces p53-mediated apoptosis by transcription-dependent and transcription-independent mechanisms and may overcome Atm-mediated resistance to fludarabine in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 2006, 108, 993–1000. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  113. Agathanggelou, A.; Smith, E.; Davies, N.J.; Kwok, M.; Zlatanou, A.; Oldreive, C.E.; Mao, J.; Da Costa, D.; Yadollahi, S.; Perry, T.; et al. USP7 inhibition alters homologous recombination repair and targets CLL cells independently of ATM/p53 functional status. Blood 2017, 130, 156–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  114. Buontempo, F.; McCubrey, J.A.; Orsini, E.; Ruzzene, M.; Cappellini, A.; Lonetti, A.; Evangelisti, C.; Chiarini, F.; Evangelisti, C.; Barata, J.T.; et al. Therapeutic targeting of CK2 in acute and chronic leukemias. Leukemia 2018, 32, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  115. Kaida, D.; Motoyoshi, H.; Tashiro, E.; Nojima, T.; Hagiwara, M.; Ishigami, K.; Watanabe, H.; Kitahara, T.; Yoshida, T.; Nakajima, H.; et al. Spliceostatin A targets SF3b and inhibits both splicing and nuclear retention of pre-mRNA. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2007, 3, 576–583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Cancers 12 00629 g001 550
Figure 1. Landscape of the main tumor suppressors inactivated in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Tumor suppressors are inactivated in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) patients by several mechanisms. Genetic lesions involving TP53, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), protection of telomers 1 (POT1), BIRC, and NOTCH1. Post-translational inactivation includes, for example, PTEN and p53. Post transcriptional mechanisms include microRNA 15/16, long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), and circular RNA (circRNA).
Figure 1. Landscape of the main tumor suppressors inactivated in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Tumor suppressors are inactivated in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) patients by several mechanisms. Genetic lesions involving TP53, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), protection of telomers 1 (POT1), BIRC, and NOTCH1. Post-translational inactivation includes, for example, PTEN and p53. Post transcriptional mechanisms include microRNA 15/16, long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), and circular RNA (circRNA).
Cancers 12 00629 g001
Cancers 12 00629 g002 550
Figure 2. Therapeutic approaches to reactivate tumor suppressor in CLL. The schema shows the main inhibitors that can restore tumor suppressor function.
Figure 2. Therapeutic approaches to reactivate tumor suppressor in CLL. The schema shows the main inhibitors that can restore tumor suppressor function.
Cancers 12 00629 g002

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Andreani, G.; Carrà, G.; Lingua, M.F.; Maffeo, B.; Brancaccio, M.; Taulli, R.; Morotti, A. Tumor Suppressors in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: From Lost Partners to Active Targets. Cancers 2020, 12, 629. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers12030629

AMA Style

Andreani G, Carrà G, Lingua MF, Maffeo B, Brancaccio M, Taulli R, Morotti A. Tumor Suppressors in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: From Lost Partners to Active Targets. Cancers. 2020; 12(3):629. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers12030629

Chicago/Turabian Style

Andreani, Giacomo, Giovanna Carrà, Marcello Francesco Lingua, Beatrice Maffeo, Mara Brancaccio, Riccardo Taulli, and Alessandro Morotti. 2020. "Tumor Suppressors in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: From Lost Partners to Active Targets" Cancers 12, no. 3: 629. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers12030629

APA Style

Andreani, G., Carrà, G., Lingua, M. F., Maffeo, B., Brancaccio, M., Taulli, R., & Morotti, A. (2020). Tumor Suppressors in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: From Lost Partners to Active Targets. Cancers, 12(3), 629. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers12030629

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop