Current Situation of Mycotoxin Contamination and Co-occurrence in Animal Feed—Focus on Europe
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Major Mycotoxins
2.1. Aflatoxins
2.2. Deoxynivalenol
2.3. T-2 Toxin and HT-2 Toxin
2.4. Zearalenone
2.5. Fumonisins
2.6. Ochratoxin A
3. EU Regulations and Guidance Values
4. Occurrence of Mycotoxins in European Feed and Feed Raw Materials
Mycotoxin | Feedstuff | Maximum Level or Guidance Value a [µg/kg] |
---|---|---|
Aflatoxin B1 | compound feed for dairy animals and young animals feed materials | 5 |
20 | ||
Deoxynivalenol | complementary and complete feedingstuffs for pigs | 900 |
cereals and cereal products | 8,000 | |
maize by-products | 12,000 | |
Zearalenone | complementary and complete feedingstuffs for piglets and gilts | 100 |
complementary and complete feedingstuffs for calves, dairy cattle, sheep and goats | 500 | |
maize by products | 3,000 | |
Fumonisins B1 + B2 | complementary and complete feedingstuffs for pigs, horses, rabbits and pet animals | 5,000 |
maize and maize products | 60,000 | |
Ochratoxin A | complementary and complete feedingstuffs for pigscereals and cereal products | 50250 |
Country | Commodity | Mycotoxins | n | % positives | Range (µg/kg) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EU(CZ, DK, ES, PT, HU) | sows feed, wheat, maize | 23 mycotoxins | 82 | 82 | Monbaliu et al. [58] | |
e.g., DON z | 82 | 63 | 74–9,528 | |||
FB1 | 82 | 44 | 36–5,114 | |||
ZEN | 82 | 15 | 58–387 | |||
HT-2 | 82 | 9 | 22–116 | |||
OTA | 82 | 2 | 22–33 | |||
Europe | feed materials | AF x,y | 169 a | 15 | max: 103 | Rodrigues and Naehrer [21] |
ZEN | 1517 | 20 | 1,045 | |||
DON | 2036 | 58 | 49,000 | |||
FB | 114 | 48 | 11,050 | |||
OTA | 192 | 35 | 331 | |||
Southern Europe | feed materials | AF x,y | 127 a | 25 | 0.5–66 | Griessler et al. [59] |
ZEN | 303 | 28 | 10–2,939 | |||
DON | 348 | 66 | 52–4,827 | |||
T-2/HT-2 | 65 | 8 | 35–137 | |||
OTA | 46 | 22 | 1–54 | |||
FB | 89 | 66 | 25–36,390 | |||
Portugal | dairy cow’s feed | AF y | 1001 | 37 | 1–74 | Martins et al. [60] |
Portugal | feed and raw materials | AF y | 1936 | 26 | 1–80 | Martins et al. [61] |
DON w | 515 | 6 | 100–1,649 | |||
FB y | 545 | 4 | 10–40 | |||
ZEN w | 30 | 13 | 104–356 | |||
Portugal | feed fattening pigs | OTA y | 277 | 8 | 2–6.8 | Almeida et al. [62] |
ZEN | 277 | 25 | 5–73 | |||
DON | 277 | 17 | 100–864 | |||
sows feed | ZEN | 127 | 30 | 5–58 | ||
FB | 127 | 9 | 50–391 | |||
Spain | feed and raw materials | OTA y | 91 | 30 | 0.1–12 | Jaimez et al. [63] |
ZEN | 91 | 8 | 0.5–2 | |||
Spain | Barley | AF y | 123 | 100 | max: 0.8 | Ibáñez-Vea et al. [64] |
OTA | 123 | 58 | 4 | |||
ZEN | 123 | 39 | 19 | |||
DON v | 123 | 95 | 1,111 | Ibáñez-Vea et al. [65] | ||
NIV | 123 | 20 | 1,435 | |||
FUS-X | 123 | 2 | 17 | |||
15-AcDON | 123 | 57 | 65 | |||
3-AcDON | 123 | 28 | 20 | |||
DAS | 123 | 25 | 2 | |||
T-2/HT-2 | 123 | 24 | 533 | |||
Italy | feed for dairy cows | AFB1x,y | 616 | 8 (in 2004) | not specified | Decastelli et al. [56] |
0 (in 2005) | ||||||
Croatia | maizeb | DON w,x,y | 40 | 85 | 15–17,920 | Pleadin et al. [66] |
ZEN | 40 | 88 | 2–5,110 | |||
Croatia | maize | FB1y | 49 | 100 | 142–1,378 | Domijan et al. [67] |
FB2 | 49 | 6 | 68–3,084 | |||
ZEN | 49 | 84 | 0.4–39 | |||
OTA | 49 | 39 | 0.9–3 | |||
Greece | feed and raw materials | AFB1w | 119 | 0 | Vlachou et al. [68] | |
183 | 4 | 10–90 | ||||
Czech Republic | grass(field trial) | ZEN x | max: 173 | Skládanka et al. [69] | ||
DON | 71 | |||||
FB | Nd | |||||
AF | nd | |||||
Slovakia | poultry feed | FB y | 50 | 98 | 36–1,160 | Labuda et al. [70] |
moniliformin | 50 | 52 | 42–1,214 | |||
ZEN u, y, z | 50 | 88 | 3–86 | Labuda et al. [71] | ||
DON | 50 | 56 | 64–1,230 | |||
T-2 | 50 | 90 | 1–130 | |||
HT-2 | 50 | 76 | 2–173 | |||
3‑AcDON, | ||||||
15‑AcDON, | ||||||
NIV and DAS also analysed | ||||||
Bulgaria | barley, wheat, maize | ZEN y | 91 | 8 | max: 148 | Manova and Mladenova [ 72] |
FB | 19c | 95 | 342–4,050 | |||
Romania | Maize, wheat, | AFB1x | 86 | 38 | max: 52 | Tabuc et al. [ 73] |
barley, oat, | OTA | 86 | 14 | 81 | ||
soya, | DON | 86 | 70 | 2,248 | ||
sunflower, | ZEN | 86 | 32 | 496 | ||
colza, rice, | FB | 86 | 41 | 1,008 | ||
triticale, rye | 86 | |||||
86 | ||||||
Romania | wheat | DON | 40 | 43 | 19 –96 | Banu et al. [74] |
ZEN | 40 | 10 | 3–6 | |||
Poland | cereals, corn, mixed feed, silages | AF y, z | 1255 | 3–10 | 0.2–0.9 | Grajewski et al. [75] |
OTA | 1255 | 36–87 | 28–760 | |||
FB | 1255 | 60–91 | 435–9,409 | |||
ZEN | 1255 | 60–87 | 422–1,150 | |||
DON | 1255 | 83–95 | 3,090–14,470 | |||
NIV, T-2 and HT-2 also analysed | range of % positives/year | range of yearly maxima | ||||
Germany | Maize | 32 y | max: | Goertz et al. [57] | ||
(2006 and 2007 harvest) | e.g. DON (2006) | 44 | 75 | 19,570 | ||
ZEN (2006) | 44 | 27 | 860 | |||
FB1 (2006) | 44 | 34 | 20,690 | |||
DON (2007) | 40 | 90 | 16,250 | |||
ZEN (2007) | 40 | 93 | 14,580 | |||
FB1 (2007) | 40 | 0 | 50 (LOQ/2) | |||
Switzerland | maize(field trial) | DON x, z | 19d | 100 | 210–8,580 | Dorn et al. [76] |
ZEN | 19 | 79 | 16–1,260 | |||
FB | 19 | 10 | 1,180–2,110 | |||
NIV | 19 | 36 | 80–1,300 | |||
growers fields | DON | 12 | 92 | 160–8,570 | ||
ZEN | 12 | 92 | 60–2,240 | |||
FB | 12 | 17 | 300–265,000 | |||
NIV | 12 | 25 | 440–1,530 |
5. EU and National Monitoring
6. Mycotoxin Co-occurrence
Country | Mycotoxins | n | Co-Occurrence | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Brazil | AFB1, FB1, ZEN | 214 | AFB1, FB1: 38% | Vargas et al. [99] |
FB1, ZEN: 30% | ||||
AFB1, FB1, ZEN: 8% | ||||
Brazil | AFB1, FB1 | 110 | AFB1, FB1: 54.5% | Carmagos et al. [100] |
Brazil | AFs, FBs | 300 | AFs, FBs: 8% | Moreno et al. [101] |
Brazil | AFs, FBs | 200 | AFs, FBs: 7% | Rocha et al. [102] |
Argentina | AF, FB, ZEN, DON | 3246 | AF, FB: 8.3% | Garrido et al. [103] |
FB, ZEN: 2% |
Country | Commodity | Mycotoxins | n | Co-Occurrence | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
UK | Maize products | 22 different mycotoxins | 67 | 100% contained >1 mycotoxin | Scudamore et al. [95] |
up to 12 mycotoxins found to co‑occur | |||||
UK | feed ingredients | AFs, FBs, OTA, ZEN, citrinin, sterigmatocystein | 14%, most often in maizeAF, FB in maize most common: 28% | Scudamore et al. [96] | |
Germany | Maize | 32 mycotoxins | 84 | not specified, implied by high individual incidencese.g., DON and ZEN | Goertz et al. [57] |
Hungary | feed raw materials | 8 Fusarium mycotoxins | 1681 | not specified, implied by high individual incidencese.g., trichothecenes, ZEN and OTA | Rafai et al. [97] |
Southern Europe | feed and feed ingredients | AFs, ZEN, DON, AcDON, T-2, HT‑2, FBs, OTA | 416 | 22% in compound feed | Griessler et al. [59]. |
B trichothecenes, ZEN and FB co-occurred frequently | |||||
Portugal | swine feed(fattening) | OTA, ZEN, DON | 277 | 10% contained any two toxins(most often ZEN and DON) OTA, ZEN, DON: 0.4% | Almeida et al. [62] |
sows feed | FBs, ZEN | 127 | FB, ZEN: 1.5% | ||
EU (CZ, DK, ES, PT, HU) | sows feed, wheat, maize | 23 mycotoxins | 82 | 75% co-contaminated | Monbaliu et al. [58] |
Slovakia | poultry feed | trichotecenes, ZEN | 50 | 84% co-contaminated | Labuda et al. [71] |
DON, ZEN, T-2, HT-2: 32% | |||||
FB1, FB2, moniliformin | 50% contained all three | Labuda et al. [70] | |||
Netherlands | diet of dairy cattle | 20 mycotoxins | 169 | DON and ZEN in 44% of the diets(major source: silage and compound feed) | Driehuis et al. [104] |
Spain | barley | AFs, ZEN, OTA | 123 | AF, OTA: 31% | Ibáñez-Vea et al. [64] |
AF, ZEN: 12% | |||||
AF, ZEN, OTA: 27% | |||||
type A and B trichothecenes | 43% contained ≥3 trichothecenes | Ibáñez-Vea et al. [65] | |||
combined: | AF, OTA, DON: 29% | Ibáñez-Vea et al. [105] | |||
AF, OTA, DON, ZEN: 26% |
7. Conclusions—Future Perspectives
Conflict of Interest
Acknowledgments
References
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Streit, E.; Schatzmayr, G.; Tassis, P.; Tzika, E.; Marin, D.; Taranu, I.; Tabuc, C.; Nicolau, A.; Aprodu, I.; Puel, O.; et al. Current Situation of Mycotoxin Contamination and Co-occurrence in Animal Feed—Focus on Europe. Toxins 2012, 4, 788-809. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins4100788
Streit E, Schatzmayr G, Tassis P, Tzika E, Marin D, Taranu I, Tabuc C, Nicolau A, Aprodu I, Puel O, et al. Current Situation of Mycotoxin Contamination and Co-occurrence in Animal Feed—Focus on Europe. Toxins. 2012; 4(10):788-809. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins4100788
Chicago/Turabian StyleStreit, Elisabeth, Gerd Schatzmayr, Panagiotis Tassis, Eleni Tzika, Daniela Marin, Ionelia Taranu, Cristina Tabuc, Anca Nicolau, Iuliana Aprodu, Olivier Puel, and et al. 2012. "Current Situation of Mycotoxin Contamination and Co-occurrence in Animal Feed—Focus on Europe" Toxins 4, no. 10: 788-809. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins4100788