Serotherapy against Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel-Targeting α-Toxins from Androctonus Scorpion Venom
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Immediate Envenomation Symptoms
3. Androctonus Genus Venoms Involved in Complex Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome
3.1. Scorpion Venom and Inflammatory Response
3.2. Involvement of the Innate Immune System
3.3. Oxidative Stress and Scorpion Pathogenesis
4. Antivenoms and Immunological Properties of Scorpion Toxins
4.1. Antivenoms
4.2. Characterization of Toxins at The Pharmacological, Structural, and Immunological Level
4.2.1. Pharmacology of Androctonus α-Toxins Targeting Nav Channels
4.2.2. Structure of Androctonus α-Toxins Targeting Nav Channels
4.2.3. First Immunological Characterization of Androctonus α-Toxins: Definition of the Structural and Immunological Groups
- (1)
- Group I, exemplified by Aah I, which also contains Aah III and Aah IV from Androctonus australis hector, Amm III from Androctonus mauretanicus mauretanicus, as well as Aam H1 and Aam H3 from Androctonus amoreuxi;
- (2)
- Group II, with Aah II from Androctonus australis hector as protoype toxin, also contains Bot III from Buthus occitanus tunetanus, LqqV from Leiurus quinquestriatus quinquestriatus, AmmV and AmmVIII from Androctonus mauretanicus mauretanicus, and Aam H2 from Androctonus amoreuxi;
- (3)
- Group III, which contains Bot I and Bot II from Buthus occitanus tunetanus, is the largest, because it contains almost all the α-like toxins from Buthus, and the α-toxins against insects, like Lqh αIT from Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus;
- (4)
- Group IV, containing toxins similar to Lqq IV from Leiurus quinquestriatus quinquestriatus.
5. Epitope Mapping of Androctonus Toxins
5.1. First Attempts to Characterize Toxin Antigenic Sites
5.2. Use of Synthetic Peptides to Define Conformational Epitopes
5.3. The Pepscan Method
5.4. Use of Monoclonal Antibodies to Characterize Androctonus Toxins Epitopes
6. Research Studies to Improve Antibody Preparation
6.1. Detoxification by Chemical Modification
6.2. Venom Trapped in Liposomes
6.3. Use of Synthetic Peptides or Synthetic Aah II to Generate Neutralizing Antibodies
6.4. Chemically Synthesized Aah II Variant Devoid of Cysteines Bridges
6.5. Use of Native Anatoxin to Generate Antiserum
6.6. Androctonus Toxins as Fusion Proteins Expressed in Escherichia coli
6.7. Phage Display
6.8. Monoclonal Antibodies
6.9. Camelid
7. Advanced Scorpion Envenomation Therapies
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Martin-Eauclaire, M.-F.; Adi-Bessalem, S.; Hammoudi-Triki, D.; Laraba-Djebari, F.; Bougis, P.E. Serotherapy against Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel-Targeting α-Toxins from Androctonus Scorpion Venom. Toxins 2019, 11, 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11020063
Martin-Eauclaire M-F, Adi-Bessalem S, Hammoudi-Triki D, Laraba-Djebari F, Bougis PE. Serotherapy against Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel-Targeting α-Toxins from Androctonus Scorpion Venom. Toxins. 2019; 11(2):63. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11020063
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartin-Eauclaire, Marie-France, Sonia Adi-Bessalem, Djelila Hammoudi-Triki, Fatima Laraba-Djebari, and Pierre E. Bougis. 2019. "Serotherapy against Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel-Targeting α-Toxins from Androctonus Scorpion Venom" Toxins 11, no. 2: 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11020063