Coffee Consumption and the Risk of Obesity in Korean Women
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Daily Coffee Consumption | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Characteristics | None (n = 725) | <1 Cup/Day (n = 1646) | 1–2 Cups/Day (n = 1457) | 2–3 Cups/Day (n = 1178) | ≥3 Cups/Day (n = 989) | p for Trend 2 |
Age (years) | 54.5 ± 8.3 | 53.4 ± 8.3 | 52.3 ± 8.2 | 50.2 ± 7.6 | 49.7 ± 7.4 | <0.001 |
Education level | ||||||
Under middle school | 168 (23.2) | 310 (18.8) | 202 (13.9) | 115 (9.8) | 100 (10.1) | <0.001 |
High school | 282 (38.9) | 642 (39.0) | 584 (40.1) | 491 (41.7) | 406 (41.1) | |
College or more | 236 (32.6) | 601 (36.5) | 609 (41.8) | 523 (44.4) | 446 (45.1) | |
Missing 3 | 39 (5.4) | 93 (5.7) | 62 (4.3) | 49 (4.2) | 37 (3.7) | |
Occupation | ||||||
Managers and profession | 70 (9.7) | 161 (9.8) | 147 (10.1) | 173 (14.7) | 138 (14.0) | <0.001 |
Office worker, sales, service | 130 (17.9) | 267 (16.2) | 333 (22.9) | 319 (27.1) | 296 (29.9) | |
Laborers, agriculture | 22 (3.0) | 71 (4.3) | 56 (3.8) | 46 (3.9) | 51 (5.2) | |
Not in labor force | 491 (67.7) | 1112 (67.6) | 899 (61.7) | 621 (52.7) | 483 (48.8) | |
Missing 3 | 12 (1.7) | 35 (2.1) | 22 (1.5) | 19 (1.6) | 21 (2.1) | |
Alcohol consumption | ||||||
Non-drinker | 540 (74.5) | 1002 (60.9) | 793 (54.4) | 565 (48.0) | 416 (42.1) | <0.001 |
Ex-drinker | 39 (5.4) | 97 (5.9) | 73 (5.0) | 58 (4.9) | 61 (6.2) | |
Current drinker | 144 (19.9) | 544 (33.1) | 586 (40.2) | 553 (46.9) | 512 (51.8) | |
Missing 3 | 2 (0.3) | 3 (0.2) | 5 (0.3) | 2 (0.2) | 0 (0.0) | |
Smoking status | ||||||
Non-smoker | 691 (95.3) | 1551 (94.2) | 1375 (94.4) | 1092 (92.7) | 873 (88.3) | <0.001 |
Ex-smoker | 14 (1.9) | 53 (3.2) | 45 (3.1) | 49 (4.2) | 56 (5.7) | |
Current smoker | 13 (1.8) | 34 (2.1) | 30 (2.1) | 30 (2.6) | 58 (5.9) | |
Missing 3 | 7 (1.0) | 8 (0.5) | 7 (0.5) | 7 (0.6) | 2 (0.2) | |
Regular exercise (yes) | 398 (54.9) | 925 (56.2) | 774 (53.1) | 564 (47.9) | 447 (45.2) | <0.001 |
Age at menarche (years) | 14.9 ± 1.7 | 14.8 ± 1.7 | 14.7 ± 2.0 | 14.4 ± 1.7 | 14.5 ± 1.6 | <0.001 |
Menopause (yes) | 523 (71.1) | 1094 (66.5) | 890 (61.1) | 598 (50.8) | 486 (49.1) | <0.001 |
Age at menopause 4 (years) | 49.3 ± 4.8 | 49.2 ± 5.0 | 49.4 ± 4.8 | 49.4 ± 4.7 | 49.1 ± 4.8 | 0.845 |
Postmenopausal hormone use 4 | ||||||
Never | 341 (65.2) | 713 (65.2) | 597 (67.1) | 421 (70.4) | 353 (72.6) | 0.001 |
Ever | 164 (31.4) | 345 (31.5) | 268 (30.1) | 156 (26.1) | 121 (24.9) | |
Total caloric intake (kcal/day) | 1562.7 ± 603.1 | 1576.2 ± 586.2 | 1629.2 ± 554.4 | 1666.3 ± 573.0 | 1763.8 ± 661.6 | <0.001 |
Coffee intake (cups/day) | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.4 ± 0.3 | 1.0 ± 0.1 | 2.0 ± 0.0 | 3.8 ± 1.1 | <0.001 |
Coffee sugar addition (g/day) | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.9 ± 1.5 | 2.1 ± 2.2 | 4.2 ± 3.9 | 5.8 ± 6.2 | <0.001 |
Coffee creamer addition (g/day) | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.5 ± 0.9 | 1.4 ± 1.8 | 3.1 ± 3.2 | 4.4 ± 5.0 | <0.001 |
Daily Coffee Consumption | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anthropometric Factor | None (n = 725) | <1 Cup/Day (n = 1646) | 1–2 Cups/Day (n = 1457) | 2–3 Cups/Day (n = 1178) | ≥3 Cups/Day (n = 989) | p for Trend |
Height (cm) | ||||||
Model 1 | 156.70 ± 5.43 | 157.31 ± 5.25 | 157.42 ± 5.19 | 157.83 ± 5.03 | 158.01 ± 4.98 | <0.001 |
Model 2 | 157.31 ± 5.09 | 157.65 ± 4.89 | 157.42 ± 4.89 | 157.51 ± 4.82 | 157.59 ± 4.64 | 0.583 |
Model 3 | 157.15 ± 5.09 | 157.54 ± 4.89 | 157.40 ± 4.89 | 157.62 ± 4.82 | 157.79 ± 4.61 | 0.186 |
Weight (kg) | ||||||
Model 1 | 55.18 ± 7.22 | 57.47 ± 7.64 | 57.61 ± 7.61 | 58.32 ± 7.72 | 58.62 ± 7.69 | <0.001 |
Model 2 | 55.12 ± 7.24 | 57.57 ± 7.73 | 57.51 ± 7.50 | 58.36 ± 7.59 | 58.53 ± 7.58 | <0.001 |
Model 3 | 54.80 ± 7.24 | 57.35 ± 7.73 | 57.45 ± 7.48 | 58.57 ± 7.59 | 58.93 ± 7.54 | <0.001 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | ||||||
Model 1 | 22.49 ± 2.88 | 23.23 ± 2.94 | 23.27 ± 3.08 | 23.42 ± 3.00 | 23.49 ± 2.99 | <0.001 |
Model 2 | 22.29 ± 2.82 | 23.17 ± 2.94 | 23.23 ± 2.96 | 23.53 ± 2.84 | 23.57 ± 2.85 | <0.001 |
Model 3 | 22.20 ± 2.82 | 23.12 ± 2.94 | 23.21 ± 2.96 | 23.58 ± 2.84 | 23.68 ± 2.84 | <0.001 |
Waist circumference (cm) | ||||||
Model 1 | 72.97 ± 7.42 | 74.36 ± 7.33 | 74.35 ± 7.44 | 74.29 ± 7.53 | 74.36 ± 7.65 | <0.001 |
Model 2 | 72.25 ± 6.87 | 74.09 ± 7.11 | 74.23 ± 6.87 | 74.66 ± 7.03 | 74.71 ± 2.28 | <0.001 |
Model 3 | 72.11 ± 6.87 | 73.99 ± 7.11 | 74.20 ± 6.86 | 74.76 ± 7.04 | 74.91 ± 7.26 | <0.001 |
Daily Coffee Consumption | No of Subjects | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Without Obesity 1 | With Obesity | ||||
All subjects | |||||
None | 612 (13.4) | 113 (7.9) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
<1 cup/day | 1269 (27.8) | 377 (26.4) | 1.61 (1.28–2.03) | 1.76 (1.39–2.23) | 1.75 (1.38–2.22) |
1–2 cups/day | 1096 (24.0) | 361 (25.3) | 1.78 (1.41–2.25) | 2.05 (1.61–2.60) | 2.04 (1.60–2.60) |
2–3 cups/day | 874 (19.1) | 304 (21.3) | 1.88 (1.48–2.39) | 2.36 (1.84–3.03) | 2.35 (1.81–3.05) |
≥3 cups/day | 717 (15.7) | 272 (19.1) | 2.06 (1.61–2.62) | 2.54 (1.96–3.28) | 2.52 (1.91–3.34) |
p for trend 2 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||
Premenopausal women | |||||
None | 177 (9.2) | 25 (5.3) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
<1 cup/day | 452 (23.4) | 100 (21.1) | 1.57 (0.98–2.51) | 1.61 (0.99–2.60) | 1.63 (1.00–2.64) |
1–2 cups/day | 458 (23.7) | 109 (23.0) | 1.69 (1.06–2.69) | 1.70 (1.05–2.75) | 1.75 (1.08–2.85) |
2–3 cups/day | 458 (23.7) | 122 (25.7) | 1.89 (1.19–3.00) | 1.89 (1.17–3.06) | 2.00 (1.22–3.27) |
≥3 cups/day | 385 (20.0) | 118 (24.9) | 2.17 (1.36–3.46) | 2.10 (1.29–3.41) | 2.28 (1.36–3.82) |
p for trend 2 | 0.001 | 0.007 | 0.006 | ||
Postmenopausal women | |||||
None | 435 (16.5) | 88 (9.2) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
<1 cup/day | 817 (31.0) | 277 (29.1) | 1.68 (1.28–2.19) | 1.79 (1.36–2.35) | 1.76 (1.34–2.32) |
1–2 cups/day | 638 (24.2) | 252 (26.4) | 1.95 (1.49–2.56) | 2.16 (1.63–2.86) | 2.10 (1.58–2.79) |
2–3 cups/day | 416 (15.8) | 182 (19.1) | 2.16 (1.62–2.88) | 2.52 (1.87–3.39) | 2.40 (1.75–3.30) |
≥3 cups/day | 332 (12.6) | 154 (16.2) | 2.29 (1.70–3.09) | 2.66 (1.95–3.64) | 2.52 (1.79–3.54) |
p for trend 2 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Daily Coffee Consumption | No of Subjects | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Without Obesity 1 | With Obesity | ||||
All subjects | |||||
None | 597 (12.8) | 128 (9.6) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
<1 cup/day | 1275 (27.3) | 371 (27.9) | 1.36 (1.09–1.70) | 1.52 (1.21–1.92) | 1.52 (1.21–1.92) |
1–2 cups/day | 1122 (24.1) | 335 (25.2) | 1.39 (1.11–1.75) | 1.70 (1.34–2.15) | 1.71 (1.34–2.17) |
2–3 cups/day | 916 (19.6) | 262 (19.7) | 1.33 (1.05–1.69) | 1.88 (1.47–2.41) | 1.93 (1.48–2.51) |
≥3 cups/day | 755 (16.2) | 234 (17.6) | 1.45 (1.14–1.84) | 2.03 (1.57–2.63) | 2.11 (1.59–2.79) |
p for trend 2 | 0.083 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||
Premenopausal women | |||||
None | 185 (9.1) | 17 (4.5) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
<1 cup/day | 466 (23.0) | 86 (22.9) | 2.01 (1.16–3.47) | 2.16 (1.23–3.78) | 2.18 (1.25–3.83) |
1–2 cups/day | 485 (23.9) | 82 (21.9) | 1.84 (1.06–3.19) | 1.96 (1.11–3.44) | 2.00 (1.14–3.54) |
2–3 cups/day | 484 (23.9) | 96 (25.6) | 2.16 (1.25–3.71) | 2.36 (1.35–4.14) | 2.51 (1.41–4.46) |
≥3 cups/day | 409 (20.2) | 94 (25.1) | 2.50 (1.45–4.31) | 2.59 (1.47–4.55) | 2.82 (1.55–5.12) |
p for trend 2 | 0.007 | 0.012 | 0.010 | ||
Postmenopausal women | |||||
None | 412 (15.6) | 111 (11.6) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
<1 cup/day | 809 (30.7) | 285 (29.8) | 1.31 (1.02–1.68) | 1.40 (1.08–1.82) | 1.40 (1.08–1.81) |
1–2 cups/day | 637 (24.2) | 253 (26.5) | 1.47 (1.14–1.90) | 1.66 (1.27–2.17) | 1.67 (1.27–2.19) |
2–3 cups/day | 432 (16.4) | 166 (17.4) | 1.43 (1.08–1.88) | 1.76 (1.32–2.35) | 1.79 (1.31–2.44) |
≥3 cups/day | 346 (13.1) | 140 (14.7) | 1.50 (1.13–2.00) | 1.87 (1.37–2.54) | 1.90 (1.36–2.67) |
p for trend 2 | 0.023 | <0.001 | 0.001 |
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Lee, J.; Kim, H.Y.; Kim, J. Coffee Consumption and the Risk of Obesity in Korean Women. Nutrients 2017, 9, 1340. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9121340
Lee J, Kim HY, Kim J. Coffee Consumption and the Risk of Obesity in Korean Women. Nutrients. 2017; 9(12):1340. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9121340
Chicago/Turabian StyleLee, Jeonghee, Hye Young Kim, and Jeongseon Kim. 2017. "Coffee Consumption and the Risk of Obesity in Korean Women" Nutrients 9, no. 12: 1340. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9121340
APA StyleLee, J., Kim, H. Y., & Kim, J. (2017). Coffee Consumption and the Risk of Obesity in Korean Women. Nutrients, 9(12), 1340. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9121340