Comparison of Nutritional Quality of the Vegan, Vegetarian, Semi-Vegetarian, Pesco-Vegetarian and Omnivorous Diet
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Methods
2.2. Assessments
2.2.1. Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ)
2.2.2. Diet Questionnaire
2.2.3. Socio-Demographical and Weight/Height Information
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
Characteristics | Categorization | Responders | |
---|---|---|---|
n | % | ||
Total | 1475 | 100.0 | |
Gender | Male | 369 | 25.0 |
Female | 1106 | 75.0 | |
Age in years | 20–29 | 697 | 47.3 |
30–39 | 391 | 26.5 | |
40–49 | 218 | 14.8 | |
50–59 | 126 | 8.5 | |
60–69 | 43 | 2.9 | |
Dietary patterns | Vegans | 104 | 7.1 |
Vegetarians | 573 | 38.8 | |
Semi-vegetarians | 498 | 33.8 | |
Pesco-vegetarians | 145 | 9.8 | |
Omnivores | 155 | 10.5 | |
Underweight (<18.5 kg/m2) | Vegans | 9 | 8.7 |
Vegetarians | 51 | 8.9 | |
Semi-vegetarians | 31 | 6.2 | |
Pesco-vegetarians | 12 | 8.3 | |
Omnivores | 5 | 3.2 | |
Normal weight (≥18.5 to <25.0 kg/m2) | Vegans | 82 | 78.8 |
Vegetarians | 418 | 72.9 | |
Semi-vegetarians | 370 | 74.3 | |
Pesco-vegetarians | 105 | 72.4 | |
Omnivores | 105 | 67.7 | |
Overweight (≥25.0 to <30.0 kg/m2) | Vegans | 11 | 10.6 |
Vegetarians | 84 | 14.7 | |
Semi-vegetarians | 85 | 17.1 | |
Pesco-vegetarians | 23 | 15.9 | |
Omnivores | 32 | 20.6 | |
Obesity (≥30.0 kg/m2) | Vegans | 2 | 1.9 |
Vegetarians | 20 | 3.5 | |
Semi-vegetarians | 12 | 2.4 | |
Pesco-vegetarians | 5 | 3.4 | |
Omnivores | 13 | 8.4 | |
Educational level | University or university college level | 1155 | 78.3 |
Macro- and Micronutrients | Vegans | Vegetarians | Semi-Vegetarians | Pesco-Vegetarians | Omnivores | panova | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | ||
Absolute Intake | |||||||||||
Total energy (kcal) | 2383 a,b,c,d | 804 | 2722 a,e | 875 | 2849 b | 858 | 2744 c | 797 | 2985 d,e | 1029 | <0.001 |
Total fat (g) | 68 a,b,c,d | 36 | 96 a,e | 43 | 107 b,e,f | 45 | 99 c,g | 39 | 122 d,f,g | 53 | <0.001 |
Saturated fat (g) | 21 a,b,c,d | 11 | 41 a,e,f | 21 | 47 b,e,g | 22 | 43 c,h | 19 | 54 d,f,g,h | 25 | <0.001 |
Mono-unsaturated fat (g) | 19 a,b,c,d | 12 | 31 a,e,f | 15 | 36 b,e | 17 | 32 c,g | 14 | 46 d,f,g | 21 | <0.001 |
Poly-unsaturated fat (g) | 28 a | 17 | 24 | 14 | 24 | 12 | 24 | 13 | 22 a | 11 | <0.001 |
Cholesterol (mg) | 149 a,b,c,d | 92 | 275 a,e,f | 125 | 321 b,e,g | 132 | 296 c,h | 111 | 376 d,f,g,h | 169 | <0.001 |
Carbohydrates (g) | 336 | 106 | 343 | 105 | 334 | 96 | 331 | 96 | 322 | 108 | ns |
Sugar (g) | 156 | 61 | 162 | 65 | 155 | 60 | 154 | 52 | 149 | 60 | ns |
Fibers (g) | 41 a,b,c,d | 14 | 34 a,b | 14 | 34 b,e | 12 | 33 c,f | 13 | 27 d,b,e,f | 10 | <0.001 |
Proteins (g) | 82 a,b,c | 39 | 93 d,e | 37 | 103 a,d | 36 | 100 b | 33 | 112 c,e | 45 | <0.001 |
Alcohol (g) | 7 a | 12 | 13 b | 17 | 11 c | 15 | 15 d | 19 | 21 a,b,c,d | 22 | <0.001 |
Sodium (mg) | 1316 a,b,c,d | 666 | 2228 a,e,f | 1013 | 2679 b,e,g | 1156 | 2371 c,h | 1047 | 3296 d,f,g,h | 1525 | <0.001 |
Calcium (mg) | 738 a,b,c,d | 456 | 1465 a,e | 819 | 1470 b,f | 712 | 1470 c | 765 | 1199 d,e,f | 682 | <0.001 |
Iron (mg) | 23 a,b,c,d | 10 | 20 a,e | 8 | 20 b | 6 | 20 c | 7 | 17 d,e | 6 | <0.001 |
Nutrient Density | |||||||||||
Total fat (E%) | 25 a,b,c,d | 8 | 31 a,e,f | 7 | 33 b,e,g | 6 | 32 c,h | 7 | 36 d,f,g,h | 7 | <0.001 |
Saturated fat (E%) | 8 a,b,c,d | 3 | 13 a,e,f | 4 | 14 b,e,g | 4 | 14 c,h | 4 | 16 d,f,g,h | 3 | <0.001 |
Carbohydrates (E%) | 57 a,b,c,d | 8 | 51 a,e,f,g | 8 | 48 b,e,h | 7 | 49 c,f,i | 7 | 44 d,g,h,i | 8 | <0.001 |
Sugar (E%) | 27 a,b,c,d | 9 | 24 a,e,f | 7 | 22 b,e,g | 6 | 23 c | 6 | 21 d,f,g | 8 | <0.001 |
Proteins (E%) | 14 a | 4 | 14 b,c,d | 3 | 15 b | 3 | 15 c | 3 | 15 a,d | 3 | <0.001 |
Sodium (mg/1000 kcal) | 546 a,b,c,d | 202 | 815 a,e,f | 261 | 934 b,e,g | 272 | 859 c,h | 244 | 1095 d,f,g,h | 308 | <0.001 |
Calcium (mg/1000 kcal) | 306 a,b,c,d | 136 | 530 a,e | 212 | 512 b,f | 173 | 531 c | 204 | 406 d,e,f | 185 | <0.001 |
Iron (mg/1000 kcal) | 10 a,b,c,d | 2 | 8 a,e,f | 2 | 7 b,e,g | 2 | 7 c,h | 1 | 6 d,f,g,h | 1 | <0.001 |
Healthy Eating Index 2010 Components | Vegans | Vegetarians | Semi-Vegetarians | Pesco-Vegetarians | Omnivores | panova | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | ||
Total Fruit £ | 4.5 a,b | 1.1 | 4.1 c | 1.4 | 3.9 a,d | 1.4 | 4.1 e | 1.3 | 3.2 b,c,d,e | 1.6 | <0.001 |
Whole Fruit μ | 4.5 a | 1.2 | 4.1 b | 1.5 | 4.1 c | 1.5 | 4.1 d | 1.5 | 3.5 a,b,c,d | 1.8 | <0.001 |
Total Vegetables | 4.8 | 0.7 | 4.8 | 0.8 | 4.8 | 0.8 | 4.8 | 0.6 | 4.6 | 1.1 | <0.05 |
Greens and beans | 4.8 a,b | 0.7 | 4.6 c | 1.0 | 4.4 a,d | 1.1 | 4.5 e | 1.0 | 3.6 b,c,d,e | 1.7 | <0.001 |
Whole Grains | 7.0 | 3.4 | 7.6 a | 3.0 | 7.9 b | 2.8 | 7.3 | 3.0 | 6.8 a,b | 3.3 | 0.001 |
Dairy § | 0.0 a,b,c,d | 0.0 | 2.8 a | 2.2 | 3.2 b | 2.2 | 3.0 c | 2.1 | 3.0 d | 2.3 | <0.001 |
Total proteins foods | 4.0 a,b,c,d | 1.2 | 3.2 a,e,f | 1.3 | 3.4 b,e,g,h | 1.3 | 2.9 c,g,h,i | 1.3 | 4.4 d,f,i | 1.1 | <0.001 |
Seafood and plant proteins | 4.6 a,b,c | 1.1 | 3.5 a,d,e,f | 1.6 | 3.8 b,d,g,h | 1.3 | 4.3 e,g,i | 1.2 | 2.9 c,f,g,i | 1.5 | <0.001 |
Fatty acids | 7.5 a,b,c,d | 2.3 | 2.2 a,e,f | 2.8 | 1.6 b,e | 2.3 | 1.8 c | 2.4 | 1.6 d,f | 1.6 | <0.001 |
Refined grains | 5.5 a,b,c,d | 3.6 | 7.1 a,e | 3.0 | 4.5 b,f | 3.1 | 7.2 c,g | 3.3 | 8.5 d,e,f,g | 2.5 | <0.001 |
Sodium | 9.8 a,d,c,d | 0.5 | 8.7 a,e,f | 1.6 | 8.0 b,e,g | 1.8 | 8.5 c,h | 1.5 | 6.8 d,f,g,h | 2.1 | <0.001 |
Empty calories * | 8.5 a,b,c,d | 5.1 | 6.0 a,e | 3.9 | 6.9 b,e | 4.2 | 6.4 c,f | 4.1 | 5.7 d,f | 4.3 | <0.001 |
Healthy Eating Index 2010 | 65.4 a,b,c,d | 8.3 | 58.7 a,e | 8.9 | 59.4 b,f | 7.4 | 58.7 c,g | 7.9 | 54.2 d,e,f,g | 9.0 | <0.001 |
Mediterranean Diet Score Components | Vegans | Vegetarians | Semi-Vegetarians | Pesco-Vegetarians | Omnivores | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | |
Higher intake than median | ||||||||||
Vegetables | 60 | 58 | 289 | 50 | 240 | 48 | 74 | 51 | 56 | 36 |
Legumes | 87 | 84 | 424 | 74 | 339 | 68 | 98 | 68 | 66 | 43 |
Fruit | 70 | 67 | 299 | 52 | 242 | 49 | 75 | 52 | 54 | 35 |
Cereals | 71 | 68 | 305 | 53 | 254 | 51 | 72 | 50 | 43 | 28 |
Fish | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 460 | 92 | 143 | 99 | 142 | 92 |
Meat and meat replacement | 48 | 46 | 373 | 65 | 235 | 47 | 112 | 77 | 24 | 16 |
Dairy | 0 | 0 | 290 | 51 | 210 | 42 | 67 | 46 | 75 | 48 |
Nuts | 75 | 72 | 299 | 52 | 207 | 42 | 63 | 43 | 23 | 15 |
Mono-unsaturated Fat/saturated fat | 63 | 61 | 239 | 42 | 249 | 50 | 57 | 39 | 115 | 74 |
Ethanol | 22 | 21 | 113 | 29 | 146 | 29 | 41 | 28 | 33 | 21 |
Mediterranean Diet Score | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD |
5.8 a,b,c | 1.3 | 4.6 a,d,e,f | 1.5 | 5.2 b,d,g | 1.5 | 5.5 e,h | 1.4 | 4.1 c,f,g,h | 1.6 |
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Clarys, P.; Deliens, T.; Huybrechts, I.; Deriemaeker, P.; Vanaelst, B.; De Keyzer, W.; Hebbelinck, M.; Mullie, P. Comparison of Nutritional Quality of the Vegan, Vegetarian, Semi-Vegetarian, Pesco-Vegetarian and Omnivorous Diet. Nutrients 2014, 6, 1318-1332. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6031318
Clarys P, Deliens T, Huybrechts I, Deriemaeker P, Vanaelst B, De Keyzer W, Hebbelinck M, Mullie P. Comparison of Nutritional Quality of the Vegan, Vegetarian, Semi-Vegetarian, Pesco-Vegetarian and Omnivorous Diet. Nutrients. 2014; 6(3):1318-1332. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6031318
Chicago/Turabian StyleClarys, Peter, Tom Deliens, Inge Huybrechts, Peter Deriemaeker, Barbara Vanaelst, Willem De Keyzer, Marcel Hebbelinck, and Patrick Mullie. 2014. "Comparison of Nutritional Quality of the Vegan, Vegetarian, Semi-Vegetarian, Pesco-Vegetarian and Omnivorous Diet" Nutrients 6, no. 3: 1318-1332. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6031318