Dietary Intake and Food Habits of Pregnant Women Residing in Urban and Rural Areas of Deyang City, Sichuan Province, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Participants and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Population
2.2. Dietary Assessment
2.3. Anthropometric Assessment
2.4. Statistical Methods and Food Intake Analyses
2.5. Ethical Clearance
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics
3.2. Antenatal Food Habits and the Cultural Beliefs and Fears Entailed
Food taboos during the pregnancy & qualitative analysis of cultural fears entailed | |||
---|---|---|---|
Urban n = 82 | Rural n = 60 | ||
Metaphysically “cold” foods | n (%) | n (%) | |
Crab | 0 | 1 (1.7) | May induce premature birth or miscarriage |
Soft-shelled turtle | 0 | 1 (1.7) | |
Snake | 1 (1.2) | 0 | |
Ice cream | 0 | 1 (1.7) | |
Sprite | 0 | 1 (1.7) | |
“Cool” foods | 4 (4.9) | 8 (13.3) | |
Metaphysically “hot” foods | n (%) | n (%) | |
Dog | 1 (1.2) | 2 (3.3) | Dog flesh is hot in the hot-cold classification of foods.
The baby may bite the mother |
Metaphysically “toxic” foods | n (%) | n (%) | |
Rabbit | 58 (70.7) | 40 (66.7) | Causes harelip or cleft palates in the fetus, rabbit head |
Eel | 8 (9.8) | 10 (16.7) | Causes foaming at the mouth of the newborn |
Beef | 20 (24.4) | 22 (36.7) | Child may have a stubborn temper like an ox |
Fish | 1 (1.2) | 2 (3.3) | Baby may get bacterial infection of the skin more easily |
Duck | 7 (8.5) | 9 (15) | Newborn’s neck will be weak or lack power. Causes duck head |
Lamb, mutton, goat | 62 (75.6) | 49 (81.7) | Fetus will suffer from epilepsy |
Sow | 1 (1.2) | 1 (1.7) | |
Chinese anise | 1 (1.2) | 0 | Harmful due to lots of flavors, may contain rosin (colophony), not fresh enough, traditional reasons |
Clove | 1 (1.2) | 0 | |
Hot pot | 1 (1.2) | 0 | |
Braised/stewed meat | 4 (4.9) | 0 | |
Bacon | 1 (1.2) | 0 | |
Leek | 1 (1.2) | 0 | |
Sauerkraut | 1 (1.2) | 0 |
3.3. Result of 24-h Recall
3.3.1. Dietary Intake of Participants at the Two Survey Sites (Urban vs. Rural)
% of energy | AMDRs • | Total (n = 192) | Urban (n = 125) | Rural (n = 67) | p-Value 1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Derived from protein | 10–15 | 12.1 ± 2.9 | 12.3 ± 2.8 | 11.6 ± 3 | 0.118 ns |
Derived from fat | 20–30 | 39 ± 11.2 | 40.4 ± 10.8 | 36.6 ± 11.6 | 0.025 * |
Derived from carbohydrate | 55–65 | 49.6 ± 11.4 | 48.1 ± 11.1 | 52.4 ± 11.7 | 0.012 * |
Total (n = 192) | Urban (n = 125) | Rural (n = 67) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy and nutrient (unit/day) | RNIs/AIs • | Mean ± SD | % fulfillment
RNI | Range | Mean ± SD | % fulfillment
RNI | Range | Mean ± SD | % fulfillment
RNI | Range | p-Value 1 Mean ± SD |
Energy (kcal) | 2300 | 2338 ± 844 | 101.7 | 566–5705 | 2441 ± 834 | 106.1 | 767–5705 | 2148 ± 837 | 93.4 | 565–4514 | 0.021 * |
Protein (g) | 85 | 69.4 ± 26.7 | 81.6 | 15.3–171.2 | 73.9 ± 26.9 | 86.9 | 16.7–171.2 | 60.9 ± 24.4 | 71.6 | 15.3–130.6 | 0.001 *** |
Fat (g) | 51–77 † | 105.7 ± 58 | 137.3 ‡ | 11.3–348.1 | 112.9 ± 57.8 | 146.6 ‡ | 11.3–348.1 | 92.2 ± 56.4 | 119.7 ‡ | 14.8–282.1 | 0.018 * |
Carbohydrate (g) | 316–374 † | 281.5 ± 103.9 | 89.1 § | 89.1–670.6 | 286.5 ± 102.5 | 90.7 § | 124.2–616.6 | 272.1 ± 106.6 | 86.1 § | 89.1–670.6 | 0.311 ns |
Vitamin A (µg RE) | 900 | 757.5 (±920.8) | 84.2 | 10–8520.7 | 849.1 (±1032) | 94.3 | 46.1–8520.7 | 586.4 (±638.1) | 65.2 | 10–3093 | 0.005 ** |
Vitamin C (mg) | 130 | 104.3 (±110.1) | 80.2 | 1.6–744.1 | 106.8 (±112.4) | 82.2 | 1.6–744.1 | 99.7 (±106.4) | 76.7 | 7.28–697.8 | 0.589 ns |
Thiamin (B1) (mg) | 1.5 | 0.81 ± 0.41 | 54 | 0.25–2.66 | 0.81 ± 0.39 | 54 | 0.25–2.53 | 0.79 ± 0.44 | 52.7 | 0.26–2.66 | 0.517 ns |
Riboflavin (B2) (mg) | 1.7 | 1.19 ± 0.58 | 70 | 0.16–4.26 | 1.27 ± 0.58 | 74.7 | 0.16–4.26 | 1.02 ± 0.53 | 60 | 0.17–2.84 | 0.003 ** |
Ca (mg) | 1200 | 602.1 ± 378.3 | 50.2 | 33.5–2788.4 | 660.8 ± 379.6 | 55.1 | 81.3–2788.4 | 492.5 ± 353 | 41 | 33.5–1530.9 | <0.001 *** |
Mg (mg) | 400 | 300.4 ± 164.5 | 75.1 | 77.9–1202.8 | 311.5 ± 160.9 | 77.9 | 97.5–1127.6 | 279.8 ± 170.4 | 70 | 77.9–1202.8 | 0.069 ns |
Fe (mg) | 35 | 18.7 ± 9.8 | 53.4 | 5.2–88.9 | 19.7 ± 10.4 | 56.3 | 5.2–88.9 | 16.8 ± 8.3 | 48 | 6.2–58.2 | 0.019 * |
Zn (mg) | 16.5 | 11.2 ± 4.7 | 67.9 | 3.5–32.6 | 11.7 ± 4.8 | 70.9 | 4.3–32.6 | 10.2 ± 4.5 | 61.8 | 3.5–28 | 0.025 * |
3.3.2. Food Groups and Sources of Energy and Nutrients
Amount (g/day) | In total | Urban | Rural | p-Value 1 |
---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 192) | (n = 125) | (n = 67) | ||
Rice/its products | 178.4 ± 94.5 | 176.6 ± 105.1 | 181.9 ± 71.2 | 0.101 ns |
Wheat and other grains/their products | 57.5 ± 133.5 | 57.6 ± 93.2 | 57.4 ± 187.8 | 0.053 ns |
Starchy tubers, roots | 30.6 ± 63.2 | 32.4 ± 66.8 | 27.3 ± 56.1 | 0.911 ns |
Soy products | 56.1 ± 138.4 | 65.3 ± 151.6 | 38.9 ± 108.6 | 0.459 ns |
Soya sauce and bean paste | 6.9 ± 6.2 | 7.4 ± 6.4 | 6.0 ± 5.7 | 0.123 ns |
Vegetables | 164.7 ± 170.4 | 183.7 ± 186.9 | 129.3 ± 128.4 | 0.042 * |
Preserved vegetables | 11.7 ± 52.4 | 15.6 ± 64.1 | 4.4 ± 12.2 | 0.083 ns |
Fruits | 517.1 ± 626.3 | 498.6 ± 619.2 | 551.6 ± 642.6 | 0.332 ns |
Nuts and seeds | 26.8 ± 52.0 | 29.0 ± 51.8 | 22.6 ± 52.6 | 0.202 ns |
Pork | 100.8 ± 105.1 | 100.7 ± 96.5 | 101.0 ± 120.4 | 0.567 ns |
Other meats/poultry/offal | 37.0 ± 58.8 | 41.0 ± 62.7 | 29.5 ± 50.4 | 0.120 ns |
Cow’s milk | 147.3 ± 196.3 | 172.9 ± 203.9 | 99.5 ± 172.7 | 0.012 * |
Chicken eggs | 55.0 ± 58.1 | 51.5 ± 53.6 | 61.7 ± 65.5 | 0.624 ns |
Seafood | 16.8 ± 42.9 | 22.4 ± 50.2 | 6.4 ± 20.8 | 0.006 ** |
Vegetable oil | 44.4 ± 37.0 | 49.2 ± 39.2 | 35.5 ± 30.7 | 0.016 * |
Animal fats | 1.2 ± 4.8 | 1.6 ± 5.8 | 0.3 ± 1.9 | 0.026 * |
4. Discussion
4.1. Food Taboos and Special Foods Consumed during Pregnancy in Rural and Urban Areas
4.2. Dietary and Food Intake Patterns
4.2.1. Dietary Intake in Rural and Urban Areas
4.2.2. Food Group Consumption in Rural and Urban Area
4.2.3. Comparison of Dietary Patterns with Related Studies
Food group (g/day) | 2002 NNHS
National level China Pregnant women (n = 310) (whole pregnancy period) | Deyang, 2010
Urban and rural areas Pregnant women (n = 192) (3rd trimester) | Recommendation
(Yang [51], 2008) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
In Total
(n = 192) | Urban
(n = 125) | Rural
(n = 67) | p-Value 1 | |||
Staples | 461 | 266.6 ± 179.4 | 266.6 ± 159.4 | 266.6 ± 213.1 | 0.882 ns | 250–400 |
Soy products | 13 | 63.0 ± 138.6 | 72.7 ± 151.8 | 44.9 ± 108.5 | 0.114 ns | 30–50 |
Vegetables | 285 | 176.4 ± 174.1 | 199.3 ± 190.8 | 133.8 ± 128.1 | 0.010 ** | 300–340 |
Fruits | 81 | 517.1 ± 626.3 | 498.6 ± 619.2 | 551.6 ± 642.6 | 0.332 ns | 200–400 |
Meats, fish | 96 | 154.6 ± 123.9 | 164.0 ± 124.3 | 137.0 ± 122.2 | 0.061 ns | 125–225 |
Milk, dairy products | 19 | 158.7 ± 198.7 | 186.5 ± 207.0 | 106.9 ± 172.0 | 0.006 ** | 300 |
Chicken eggs | 25 | 55.0 ± 58.1 | 51.5 ± 53.6 | 61.7 ± 65.5 | 0.624 ns | - • |
Vegetable oil | 31 | 44.4 ± 37.0 | 49.2 ± 39.2 | 35.5 ± 30.7 | 0.016 * | 25 |
NNHS
National level China Covering individuals of all ages | Deyang, 2010
Urban and rural areas Pregnant women (3rd trimester) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Food group (g/day) | 1982 | 1992 | 2002 | 2010 |
Grains/its products | 510 | 440 | 402 | 236 |
Vegetable & fruit | 368 | 369 | 331 | 724 |
Animal sources | 61 | 117 | 160 | 368 |
Visible oil and fat | 18 | 30 | 41 | 46 |
4.3. Recommendations to Improve Dietary Quality
4.3.1. Improving Nutrient Density of the Diet in Rural and Urban Areas
4.3.2. Improving the Intake of Micronutrients in Rural and Urban Area
4.4. Limitations of This Study
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
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Gao, H.; Stiller, C.K.; Scherbaum, V.; Biesalski, H.K.; Wang, Q.; Hormann, E.; Bellows, A.C. Dietary Intake and Food Habits of Pregnant Women Residing in Urban and Rural Areas of Deyang City, Sichuan Province, China. Nutrients 2013, 5, 2933-2954. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5082933
Gao H, Stiller CK, Scherbaum V, Biesalski HK, Wang Q, Hormann E, Bellows AC. Dietary Intake and Food Habits of Pregnant Women Residing in Urban and Rural Areas of Deyang City, Sichuan Province, China. Nutrients. 2013; 5(8):2933-2954. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5082933
Chicago/Turabian StyleGao, Haoyue, Caroline K. Stiller, Veronika Scherbaum, Hans Konrad Biesalski, Qi Wang, Elizabeth Hormann, and Anne C. Bellows. 2013. "Dietary Intake and Food Habits of Pregnant Women Residing in Urban and Rural Areas of Deyang City, Sichuan Province, China" Nutrients 5, no. 8: 2933-2954. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5082933