The Relationship of Pork Meat Consumption with Nutrient Intakes, Diet Quality, and Biomarkers of Health Status in Korean Older Adults
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Design and Population
2.2. Development of a Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12, Magnesium, Zinc, and Selenium Database
- Foods with the same description (exact same names [common or academic names] and same condition);
- Foods with the same name but different water content (dried, raw, and boiled) or different manufacturer;
- Substituting similar foods while considering major nutrients (specifically, carbohydrate, protein, and fat content).
2.3. Estimation of Total Energy and Nutrient Intake
2.4. Classification of Pork Consumers and Non-Consumers
2.5. Korean Healthy Eating Index Score
2.6. Anthropometric, Blood Pressure, and Biochemical Measurements
2.7. Regular Physical Activity
2.8. Handgrip Strength Measurements
2.9. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of Study Participants
3.2. Proportion of Pork Intake
3.3. Total Energy and Nutrient Intake
3.4. Diet Quality
3.5. Biomarkers of Health Status
3.6. Handgrip Strength, Anthropometric Measures, and Blood Pressure
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristic | All (n = 2068) | Men | Women | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Consumers (n = 372) | Non-Consumers (n = 618) | Consumers (n = 359) | Non-Consumers (n = 719) | ||
Age (y) | 72.28 ± 0.13 | 71.65 ± 0.32 | 73.35 ± 0.23 **** | 71.15 ± 0.32 | 72.26 ± 0.23 ** |
Education | |||||
Elementary school | 1013 (50.39) | 119 (32.20) | 251 (42.14) ** | 194 (52.05) | 449 (66.88) ** |
Middle school | 253 (14.29) | 38 (11.41) | 82 (15.8) | 56 (18.54) | 77 (12.27) |
High school | 353 (20.33) | 89 (27.81) | 120 (22.02) | 51 (18.93) | 93 (15.45) |
College | 251 (14.99) | 92 (28.57) | 97 (20.04) | 29 (10.48) | 33 (5.40) |
Residence | |||||
Urban | 1484 (77.09) | 289 (83.30) | 433 (74.93) * | 275 (81.35) | 487 (73.25) * |
Rural | 584 (22.91) | 83 (16.70) | 185 (25.07) | 84 (18.65) | 232 (26.75) |
Household income | |||||
Low | 910 (42.71) | 117 (31.89) | 268 (42.67) ** | 151 (41.32) | 374 (49.64) |
Middle-low | 607 (28.70) | 119 (30.79) | 188 (29.68) | 115 (30.73) | 185 (25.51) |
Middle-high | 311 (16.42) | 74 (20.04) | 101 (17.62) | 46 (14.63) | 90 (14.24) |
High | 228 (12.17) | 60 (17.29) | 58 (10.04) | 45 (13.33) | 65 (10.61) |
Marital status | |||||
Married | 2060 (99.62) | 370 (99.48) | 617 (99.9) | 357 (99.45) | 716 (99.53) |
Single | 8 (0.38) | 2 (0.52) | 1 (0.10) | 2 (0.55) | 3 (0.47) |
Alcohol consumer | |||||
No | 1278 (59.96) | 142 (36.31) | 296 (47.66) ** | 279 (75.52) | 561 (76.35) |
Yes | 748 (37.96) | 226 (62.44) | 312 (50.73) | 72 (21.95) | 138 (20.91) |
No response | 42 (2.08) | 4 (1.25) | 10 (1.61) | 8 (2.53) | 20 (2.75) |
Smoking status | |||||
Current smoker | 214 (10.78) | 84 (22.32) | 100 (15.71) | 9 (3.30) | 21 (3.71) |
Ex-smoker | 599 (29.81) | 203 (55.14) | 360 (58.00) | 11 (3.80) | 25 (3.42) |
Non-smoker | 1212 (57.26) | 81 (21.30) | 147 (24.48) | 331 (90.37) | 653 (90.08) |
No response | 43 (2.16) | 4 (1.25) | 11 (1.81) | 8 (2.53) | 20 (2.79) |
Regular physical activity | |||||
No | 1223 (64.29) | 206 (57.98) | 347 (61.86) | 217 (64.27) | 453 (69.94) |
Yes | 637 (35.71) | 129 (42.02) | 200 (38.14) | 113 (35.73) | 195 (30.06) |
Characteristic | n | Intake, Mean ± SE (g/d) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Total Pork | Fresh Pork | Processed Pork | ||
Total population | 731 | 63.11 ± 3.16 | 60.46 ± 3.19 | 2.65 ± 0.36 |
Gender | ||||
Men | 372 | 79.11 ± 5.17 | 75.99 ± 5.24 | 3.12 ± 0.64 |
Women | 359 | 46.30 ± 2.87 | 44.15 ± 2.91 | 2.15 ± 0.32 |
BMI (kg/m2) | ||||
Underweight (<18.5) | 37 | 50.42 ± 9.84 | 48.03 ± 9.91 | 2.39 ± 1.61 |
Healthy weight (18.5 to <25.0) | 351 | 59.41 ± 4.24 | 56.92 ± 4.29 | 2.50 ± 0.50 |
Overweight (25 to <30.0) | 195 | 63.85 ± 5.70 | 60.88 ± 5.80 | 2.97 ± 0.67 |
Obese (≥30.0) | 138 | 74.64 ± 9.06 | 71.88 ± 9.14 | 2.75 ± 1.02 |
Nutrient | All (n = 2068) | Men | Women | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Consumers (n = 372) | Non-Consumers (n = 618) | p-Value | Consumers (n = 359) | Non-Consumers (n = 719) | p-Value | ||
Energy (kcal) | 1706.45 ± 17.16 | 2080.79 ± 43.18 | 1816.08 ± 30.37 | <0.0001 | 1601.93 ± 35.11 | 1449.33 ± 23.48 | <0.0001 |
Carbohydrate (g) | 290.59 ± 2.92 | 327.06 ± 7.30 | 312.37 ± 5.31 | 0.0011 | 267.70 ± 6.02 | 262.14 ± 4.56 | 0.0053 |
Protein (g) | 57.75 ± 0.73 | 74.49 ± 1.80 | 61.37 ± 1.33 | <0.0001 | 56.15 ± 1.29 | 45.77 ± 0.90 | <0.0001 |
Fat (g) | 29.73 ± 0.62 | 40.27 ± 1.53 | 28.88 ± 0.96 | <0.0001 | 32.63 ± 1.43 | 22.98 ± 0.77 | <0.0001 |
SFA (g) | 9.11 ± 0.21 | 12.43 ± 0.46 | 8.68 ± 0.32 | <0.0001 | 10.15 ± 0.55 | 7.06 ± 0.26 | <0.0001 |
ω3 fatty acids (g) | 1.67 ± 0.06 | 1.95 ± 0.14 | 1.80 ± 0.09 | 0.1025 | 1.86 ± 0.17 | 1.29 ± 0.06 | <0.0001 |
ω6 fatty acids (g) | 6.89 ± 0.15 | 9.12 ± 0.40 | 6.69 ± 0.22 | <0.0001 | 7.53 ± 0.35 | 5.46 ± 0.21 | <0.0001 |
Cholesterol (mg) | 160.54 ± 4.43 | 212.45 ± 10.65 | 166.30 ± 7.87 | <0.0001 | 160.70 ± 8.32 | 125.70 ± 6.52 | <0.0001 |
Sugar (g) | 53.95 ± 1.12 | 59.53 ± 2.40 | 54.54 ± 1.98 | <0.0001 | 56.51 ± 2.59 | 48.85 ± 1.78 | <0.0001 |
Calcium (mg) | 469.92 ± 8.11 | 517.55 ± 14.84 | 515.27 ± 15.03 | 0.0030 | 454.96 ± 15.80 | 409.07 ± 11.82 | <0.0001 |
Phosphorus (mg) | 946.25 ± 11.21 | 1142.27 ± 24.86 | 1019.79 ± 20.56 | <0.0001 | 913.27 ± 21.04 | 784.94 ± 14.76 | <0.0001 |
Iron (mg) | 10.46 ± 0.17 | 12.36 ± 0.49 | 11.30 ± 0.33 | 0.0005 | 9.77 ± 0.32 | 8.97 ± 0.22 | 0.0008 |
Sodium (mg) | 2936.37 ± 47.90 | 3611.58 ± 114.99 | 3234.82 ± 92.63 | 0.0028 | 2685.48 ± 77.24 | 2413.14 ± 74.46 | <0.0001 |
Potassium (mg) | 2709.23 ± 38.61 | 3136.77 ± 79.96 | 2859.60 ± 68.05 | <0.0001 | 2673.37 ± 77.82 | 2347.22 ± 57.35 | <0.0001 |
Vitamin A (µg RAE) | 335.50 ± 11.16 | 406.76 ± 42.80 | 322.47 ± 13.26 | 0.0252 | 365.13 ± 22.44 | 291.14 ± 12.93 | 0.0001 |
Carotene (μg) | 2898.12 ± 85.02 | 3215.74 ± 190.08 | 2920.45 ± 147.59 | 0.0012 | 3156.32 ± 204.43 | 2558.07 ± 128.67 | 0.0456 |
Retinol (μg) | 93.95 ± 8.28 | 138.81 ± 39.67 | 79.09 ± 4.80 | 0.1213 | 102.11 ± 10.69 | 77.85 ± 6.88 | 0.0244 |
Thiamin(mg) | 1.11 ± 0.01 | 1.46 ± 0.04 | 1.09 ± 0.02 | <0.0001 | 1.15 ± 0.03 | 0.92 ± 0.02 | <0.0001 |
Riboflavin(mg) | 1.24 ± 0.02 | 1.51 ± 0.05 | 1.29 ± 0.03 | <0.0001 | 1.25 ± 0.04 | 1.03 ± 0.03 | <0.0001 |
Niacin (mg) | 10.53 ± 0.14 | 13.39 ± 0.34 | 11.13 ± 0.28 | <0.0001 | 10.15 ± 0.26 | 8.55 ± 0.19 | <0.0001 |
Folate (μg DFE) | 326.25 ± 4.87 | 369.18 ± 9.48 | 355.38 ± 9.37 | 0.0008 | 312.43 ± 9.54 | 282.44 ± 6.51 | <0.0001 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 63.51 ± 1.96 | 69.02 ± 4.63 | 61.66 ± 2.71 | 0.0007 | 70.33 ± 4.94 | 58.43 ± 3.36 | 0.0004 |
Vitamin B6 (mg) | 0.92 ± 0.04 | 1.13 ± 0.09 | 1.03 ± 0.07 | 0.5481 | 0.83 ± 0.06 | 0.76 ± 0.06 | 0.0689 |
Vitamin B12 (μg) | 4.58 ± 0.18 | 4.88 ± 0.31 | 5.56 ± 0.37 | 0.0085 | 4.29 ± 0.45 | 3.67 ± 0.22 | 0.0010 |
Magnesium (mg) | 301.26 ± 3.78 | 345.58 ± 8.69 | 329.88 ± 7.11 | <0.0001 | 285.81 ± 7.51 | 258.04 ± 5.16 | <0.0001 |
Zinc (mg) | 11.59 ± 0.21 | 13.10 ± 0.37 | 12.54 ± 0.42 | 0.1170 | 11.06 ± 0.38 | 10.15 ± 0.30 | 0.0006 |
Selenium (μg) | 67.52 ± 1.48 | 89.59 ± 3.40 | 66.65 ± 2.09 | <0.0001 | 70.26 ± 2.82 | 54.35 ± 2.42 | <0.0001 |
Fiber (g) | 27.31 ± 0.45 | 30.11 ± 0.86 | 29.25 ± 0.79 | 0.0084 | 26.69 ± 0.83 | 24.26 ± 0.65 | <0.0001 |
KHEI Score and Components | All (n = 1254) | Men | Women | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Consumers (n = 235) | Non-Consumers (n = 363) | p- Value | Consumers (n = 207) | Non-Consumers (n = 449) | p- Value | ||
KHEI score | 67.46 ± 0.46 | 67.91 ± 0.93 | 65.74 ± 0.74 | 0.0308 | 70.88 ± 0.96 | 67.00 ± 0.73 | <0.0001 |
KHEI component | |||||||
Meat, fish, egg, and bean intake (serving/day) | 6.78 ± 0.12 | 7.58 ± 0.22 | 6.49 ± 0.20 | <0.0001 | 7.93 ± 0.22 | 6.03 ± 0.19 | <0.0001 |
Have breakfast (times/week) | 9.43 ± 0.08 | 9.51 ± 0.15 | 9.59 ± 0.11 | 0.0117 | 9.53 ± 0.19 | 9.20 ± 0.14 | 0.0281 |
Mixed grains intake (serving/day) | 2.50 ± 0.08 | 2.42 ± 0.17 | 2.61 ± 0.13 | 0.2554 | 2.50 ± 0.17 | 2.45 ± 0.13 | 0.4235 |
Total fruit intake (serving/day) | 2.80 ± 0.09 | 2.57 ± 0.18 | 2.43 ± 0.15 | 0.1579 | 3.21 ± 0.18 | 3.04 ± 0.16 | <0.0001 |
Fresh fruit intake (serving/day) | 2.89 ± 0.09 | 2.68 ± 0.19 | 2.62 ± 0.16 | 0.6017 | 3.29 ± 0.18 | 3.05 ± 0.16 | 0.001 |
Total vegetable intake (serving/day) | 3.74 ± 0.05 | 4.07 ± 0.09 | 3.61 ± 0.09 | 0.0003 | 3.86 ± 0.10 | 3.59 ± 0.09 | <0.0001 |
Vegetable intake excluding Kimchi and pickled vegetable intake (serving/day) | 3.32 ± 0.06 | 3.31 ± 0.12 | 3.02 ± 0.09 | 0.011 | 3.72 ± 0.13 | 3.37 ± 0.09 | <0.0001 |
Milk and milk products intake (serving/day) | 2.62 ± 0.15 | 2.49 ± 0.34 | 2.15 ± 0.23 | 0.2861 | 2.76 ± 0.33 | 3.02 ± 0.26 | 0.0220 |
Percent energy from SFA (% of total energy intake) | 9.04 ± 0.08 | 8.88 ± 0.18 | 9.26 ± 0.12 | 0.2728 | 8.36 ± 0.27 | 9.26 ± 0.11 | 0.0155 |
Sodium intake (mg/day) | 7.66 ± 0.10 | 6.44 ± 0.25 | 7.25 ± 0.17 | 0.0051 | 7.96 ± 0.20 | 8.52 ± 0.14 | <0.0001 |
Percent energy from sweets and beverages (% of total energy intake) | 9.36 ± 0.07 | 9.33 ± 0.15 | 9.23 ± 0.15 | 0.4244 | 9.52 ± 0.13 | 9.40 ± 0.12 | 0.6741 |
Percent energy from carbohydrate (% of total energy intake) | 1.63 ± 0.07 | 2.21 ± 0.16 | 1.60 ± 0.11 | 0.0028 | 2.16 ± 0.18 | 1.09 ± 0.09 | <0.0001 |
Percent energy intake from fat (% of total energy intake) | 2.46 ± 0.08 | 3.20 ± 0.16 | 2.39 ± 0.13 | 0.0004 | 2.99 ± 0.20 | 1.86 ± 0.12 | <0.0001 |
Energy intake (% of the EER) | 3.24 ± 0.07 | 3.22 ± 0.18 | 3.49 ± 0.12 | 0.4786 | 3.09 ± 0.18 | 3.12 ± 0.11 | 0.6345 |
Blood Biomarkers | All | Men | Women | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Consumers | Non-Consumers | p-Value | Consumers | Non-Consumers | p-Value | ||
Hemoglobin (g/dL) | n = 1966 | n = 358 | n = 588 | n = 343 | n = 677 | ||
13.81 ± 0.04 | 14.69 ± 0.08 | 14.50 ± 0.07 | <0.0001 | 13.04 ± 0.07 | 13.09 ± 0.04 | 0.0003 | |
Hematocrit (%) | n = 1966 | n = 358 | n = 588 | n = 343 | n = 677 | ||
42.07 ± 0.12 | 44.44 ± 0.24 | 43.92 ± 0.22 | <0.0001 | 39.95 ± 0.21 | 40.14 ± 0.13 | 0.0031 | |
FBG (mg/dL) | n = 1971 | n = 359 | n = 588 | n = 346 | n = 678 | ||
100.05 ± 0.44 | 100.74 ± 1.02 | 102.15 ± 0.87 | 0.3373 | 99.13 ± 0.99 | 98.20 ± 0.68 | 0.0957 | |
HbA1c (%) | n = 1966 | n = 358 | n = 588 | n = 343 | n = 677 | ||
5.74 ± 0.01 | 5.72 ± 0.04 | 5.76 ± 0.03 | 0.6393 | 5.76 ± 0.04 | 5.72 ± 0.02 | 0.4849 | |
hs-CRP (mg/L) | n = 1159 | n = 221 | n = 336 | n = 199 | n = 403 | ||
1.45 ± 0.10 | 1.55 ± 0.23 | 1.73 ± 0.20 ** | 0.0252 | 1.04 ± 0.08 | 1.37 ± 0.18 | 0.135 | |
Creatinine (mg/dL) | n = 1971 | n = 359 | n = 588 | n = 346 | n = 678 | ||
0.82 ± 0.01 | 0.94 ± 0.01 | 0.93 ± 0.01 | 0.0011 | 0.69 ± 0.01 | 0.71 ± 0.01 | <.0001 | |
BUN (mg/dL) | n = 1971 | n = 359 | n = 588 | n = 346 | n = 678 | ||
16.69 ± 0.14 | 17.17 ± 0.27 | 17.13 ± 0.32 | 0.1566 | 16.37 ± 0.26 | 16.18 ± 0.21 | 0.0379 | |
TC (mg/dL) | n = 1971 | n = 359 | n = 588 | n = 346 | n = 678 | ||
200.23 ± 0.94 | 193.43 ± 1.96 | 190.50 ± 1.67 | 0.0057 | 211.87 ± 2.14 | 206.79 ± 1.65 | 0.0011 | |
HDL-c (mg/dL) | n = 1971 | n = 359 | n = 588 | n = 346 | n = 678 | ||
49.78 ± 0.33 | 48.38 ± 0.73 | 47.77 ± 0.57 | 0.2112 | 53.10 ± 0.77 | 50.60 ± 0.56 | 0.0399 | |
LDL-c (mg/dL) | n = 1971 | n = 359 | n = 588 | n = 346 | n = 678 | ||
125.54 ± 0.82 | 119.29 ± 1.67 | 118.33 ± 1.41 | 0.0371 | 134.12 ± 1.98 | 131.12 ±1.47 | 0.0006 | |
TG (mg/dL) | n = 1971 | n = 359 | n = 588 | n = 346 | n = 678 | ||
124.59 ± 1.88 | 128.79 ± 4.40 | 122.02 ± 3.15 | 0.1005 | 123.20 ± 3.78 | 125.30 ± 3.49 | 0.2649 |
Measurement | All | Men | Women | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Consumers | Non-Consumers | p-Value | Consumers | Non-Consumers | p-Value | ||
Hand grip strength (kg) | n = 1600 | n = 290 | n = 477 | n = 271 | n = 562 | ||
26.32 ± 0.26 | 33.84 ± 0.52 | 31.91 ± 0.40 | <0.0001 | 20.76 ± 0.34 | 19.99 ± 0.22 | <0.0001 | |
BMI (kg/m2) | n = 2041 | n = 367 | n = 612 | n = 354 | n = 708 | ||
23.01 ± 0.08 | 22.95 ± 0.18 | 22.57 ± 0.14 | 0.0004 | 23.24 ± 0.18 | 23.34 ± 0.15 | 0.0108 | |
Waist circumference (cm) | n = 2062 | n = 371 | n = 617 | n = 358 | n = 716 | ||
83.06 ± 0.24 | 85.31 ± 0.53 | 84.06 ± 0.42 | 0.2621 | 81.47 ± 0.51 | 81.71 ± 0.43 | 0.8723 | |
Blood pressure | n = 2059 | n = 370 | n = 618 | n = 358 | n = 713 | ||
SBP (mm Hg) | 126.84 ± 0.50 | 126.27 ± 0.98 | 126.05 ± 0.83 | <0.0001 | 122.28 ± 0.22 | 128.18 ± 0.87 | <0.0001 |
DBP (mm Hg) | 73.62 ± 0.27 | 73.50 ± 0.66 | 73.15 ± 0.45 | <0.0001 | 72.48 ± 0.14 | 73.45 ± 0.46 | 0.0029 |
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Jung, A.-J.; Sharma, A.; Chung, M.; Wallace, T.C.; Lee, H.-J. The Relationship of Pork Meat Consumption with Nutrient Intakes, Diet Quality, and Biomarkers of Health Status in Korean Older Adults. Nutrients 2024, 16, 4188. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16234188
Jung A-J, Sharma A, Chung M, Wallace TC, Lee H-J. The Relationship of Pork Meat Consumption with Nutrient Intakes, Diet Quality, and Biomarkers of Health Status in Korean Older Adults. Nutrients. 2024; 16(23):4188. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16234188
Chicago/Turabian StyleJung, Ah-Jin, Anshul Sharma, Mei Chung, Taylor C. Wallace, and Hae-Jeung Lee. 2024. "The Relationship of Pork Meat Consumption with Nutrient Intakes, Diet Quality, and Biomarkers of Health Status in Korean Older Adults" Nutrients 16, no. 23: 4188. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16234188
APA StyleJung, A.-J., Sharma, A., Chung, M., Wallace, T. C., & Lee, H.-J. (2024). The Relationship of Pork Meat Consumption with Nutrient Intakes, Diet Quality, and Biomarkers of Health Status in Korean Older Adults. Nutrients, 16(23), 4188. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16234188