Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on Post-Exercise Inflammation, Muscle Damage, Oxidative Response, and Sports Performance in Physically Healthy Adults—A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Search Strategy
2.2. Selection Criteria
2.3. Study Selection
2.4. Quality Assessment
2.5. Risk-of-Bias Assessment
2.6. Data Extraction
3. Results
3.1. Study Selection
3.2. Quality Assessment
3.3. Risk-of-Bias Assessment
3.4. Outcome Evaluation
3.4.1. Characteristics of the Sample
3.4.2. Omega-3 Supplementation
3.4.3. Inflammatory Markers
3.4.4. Muscle Damage
3.4.5. Oxidant Response
3.4.6. Sports Performance
4. Discussion
4.1. Omega-3 Supplementation
4.2. Inflammatory Markers
4.3. Muscle Damage
4.4. Oxidant Response
4.5. Sports Performance
5. Limitations and Strengths
6. Practical Applications
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Search Strategy
Database | Keywords | Hits |
PubMed | (omega-3 OR omega-3 supplementation OR Polyunsaturated fatty acids) AND (“muscle recovery”), AND (athletic performance OR improved athletic performance) AND (exercise-induced muscle damage OR muscle soreness OR muscle damage) AND (eccentric exercise) AND (inflammation OR oxidative stress) AND (benefits). Filters: Full text, Trial, in the last 10 years | 678 |
Scopus | (“omega-3” [Title/Abstract] OR “omega-3 supplementation” [Title/Abstract] OR “Polyunsaturated fatty acids” [Title/Abstract]) AND (“muscle recovery” [Title/Abstract]), AND (“athletic performance” [Title/Abstract] OR “improved athletic performance” [Title/Abstract]) AND (“exercise-induced muscle damage” [Title/Abstract] OR “muscle soreness” [Title/Abstract] OR “muscle damage” [Title/Abstract]) AND (“eccentric exercise” [Title/Abstract]) AND (“inflammation” [Title/Abstract] OR “oxidative stress” [Title/Abstract]) AND (“benefits” [Title/Abstract]). In Title Abstract Keyword in All Text—with Publication Year from 2013 to 2024. Filters: Full text, Trial, in the last 10 years | 51 |
Web of Science | ((omega-3 OR omega-3 supplementation OR Polyunsaturated fatty acids (topic)) AND (“muscle recovery”), AND ((athletic performance OR improved athletic performance (topic)) AND ((exercise-induced muscle damage OR muscle soreness OR muscle damage(topic)) AND ((eccentric exercise (topic)) AND ((inflammation OR oxidative stress (topic)) AND ((benefits (topic)). Anywhere Publication 2013-2024, Filters: Full text, Trial, in the last 10 years | 768 |
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Study | Items | Total | % | Quality Score | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | ||||
Ávila-Gandía et al., 2020 [36] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 13 | 81.3 | VG |
Barquilha et al., 2023 [37] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 15 | 93.8 | E |
Brook et al., 2021 [38] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 15 | 93.8 | E |
Heileson et al., 2023 [39] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 13 | 81.3 | VG |
Jakeman et al., 2017 [40] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 14 | 87.5 | VG |
Lee et al., 2022 [41] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 13 | 81.3 | VG |
Lembke et al., 2014 [16] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 15 | 93.8 | E |
Mullins et al., 2022 [42] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 13 | 81.3 | VG |
Nieman et al., 2015 [43] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 81.3 | VG |
Tomczk et al., 2024 [33] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 13 | 81.3 | VG |
Tsuchiya et al., 2021 [34] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 13 | 81.3 | VG |
Tsuchiya et al., 2016 [17] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 15 | 93.7 | E |
VanDusseldrorp et al., 2020 [37] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 15 | 93.7 | E |
Study | Items | Total | % | Quality Score | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | ||||
Ávila-Gandía et al., 2020 [36] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 90.9 | E |
Barquilha et al., 2023 [37] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 90.9 | E |
Brook et al., 2021 [38] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 90.9 | E |
Heileson et al., 2023 [39] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 9 | 81.8 | E |
Jakeman et al., 2017 [40] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 90.9 | E |
Lee et al., 2022 [41] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 | 72.7 | G |
Lembke et al., 2014 [16] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 9 | 81.8 | E |
Mullins et al., 2022 [42] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 90.9 | E |
Nieman et al., 2015 [43] | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 | 72.7 | G |
Tomczk et al., 2024 [33] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 | 72.7 | G |
Tsuchiya et al., 2021 [34] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 90.9 | E |
Tsuchiya et al., 2016 [17] | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 9 | 81.8 | E |
VanDusseldrorp et al., 2020 [37] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 90.9 | E |
random sequence generation (selection bias) | allocation concealment (selection bias) | blinding (performance bias and detection bias) participant | blinding (performance bias and detection bias) personnel | blinding (performance bias and detection bias) outcome assessor | incomplete outcome (attrition bias) | selective reporting (reporting bias) | other bias | |
Ávila-Gandía et al., 2020 [36] | ||||||||
Barquilha et al., 2023 [37] | ||||||||
Brook et al., 2021 [38] | ||||||||
Heileson et al., 2023 [39] | ||||||||
Jakeman et al., 2017 [40] | ||||||||
Lee et al., 2022 [41] | ||||||||
Lembke et al., 2014 [16] | ||||||||
Mullins et al., 2022 [42] | ||||||||
Nieman et al., 2015 [43] | ||||||||
Tomczk et al., 2024 [33] | ||||||||
Tsuchiya et al., 2021 [34] | ||||||||
Tsuchiya et al., 2016 [17] | ||||||||
VanDusseldrorp et al., 2020 [37] |
Characteristics | Types | Reference |
---|---|---|
Level of participants | Amateur competitive | [36,42,43] |
Amateur | [33] | |
Recreationally | [17,33] | |
Recreationally active | [38,39] | |
Physically active | [16,35,37,40,41] | |
Administration Type | Capsule | [16,17,33,34,36,38,39,40] |
Soft gel | [35,42] | |
Water with seed oil | [43] | |
Unspecified | [33,38] | |
Total dose | High * (750 mg EPA + 50 mg DHA) Low * (150 mg EPA + 100 mg DHA) | [40] |
2 g (1400 mg: 800 mg EPA + 600 mg DHA) 4 g (2800 mg: 1600 mg EPA + 1200 mg DHA) 6 g (4200 mg: 2400 mg EPA + 1800 mg DHA) | [35] | |
780 mg EPA + 606 mg DHA | [37] | |
1220 mg/d (975 mg DHA + 120 mg EPA) | [36] | |
2.1 g/d EPA + 0.78 g/d DHA | [41] | |
2.275 g/d EPA + 1.575 g/d DHA | [39] | |
2234 mg/d EPA + 930 mg/d DHA | [33] | |
2.4 g/d (600 mg EPA + 260 mg DHA) | [34] | |
2.7 g/day | [16] | |
3.5 g/d (1 g: 407 mg/g DHA +170 mg/g EPA) | [43] | |
2400 mg (1360 mg EPA + 1040 mg DHA) | [17] | |
3680 mg/d (1860 mg EPA +1540 mg DHA) | [38] | |
31 g ALA for the average | [32] | |
Dose schedule | once a day: post-lunch morning | [34] |
30 min after meals with water | [17] | |
30 min before exercise | [43] | |
once a day: post-exercise | [40] | |
3 times/days (morning, lunch, dinner) | [41] | |
Unspecified | [16,33,35,36,37,38,39,42] | |
Amount of supplement/d | 2/4/6 capsules | [35] |
3 capsules | [36,37,41] | |
6 capsules | [16,42] | |
8 capsules | [17,34] | |
1 g (capsule)/10 kg/BM | [40] | |
7 capsules | [39] | |
0.43 g ALA/kg BM | [43] | |
Unspecified | [38] | |
Duration | twice separated by two weeks | [43] |
1 day | [40] | |
30 days | [36] | |
4 weeks | [16] | |
4.5 weeks | [34] | |
6 weeks | [37,38] | |
7.5 weeks | [35] | |
8 week + 5 days | [17] | |
10 weeks | [39] | |
12 weeks | [33,41] | |
26 weeks | [42] | |
Exercise intervention | Endurance + functional/resistance | [33,35] |
Cycling test to exhaustion | [36] | |
Maximum eccentric extensions of the forearm or elbow | [16,17,34] | |
Plyometric jumps | [40] | |
Resistance exercise training | [37,38,39,41] | |
Running at constant speed until exhaustion | [43] | |
Unspecified | [42] |
First Author, Year of Publication, and Country | Study Design | Participants | Intervention | Outcomes | Results | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ávila-Gandía et al. [36], 2020, Spain | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial | n = 50 ♂ Amateur cyclists competing at regional level Gn-3 n = 18 Age (mean ± SD) 35.5 ± 7.3 years Weight (mean ± SD) t 72.4 ± 4.4 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 23.83 ± 1.43 Relative VO2 max (mean ± SD) 48.5 ± 6.8 mL/min/kg CG n = 20 Age (mean ± SD) 36.0 ± 9.6 years Weight (mean ± SD) 71.1 ± 3.4 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 23.42 ± 1.31 Relative VO2 max (mean ± SD) 49.3 ± 6.1mL/min/kg Study withdrawals: 12 | Gn-3 3 soft-gels Per unit: 325 mg DHA + 40 mg EPA (Brudy plus, Brudytechnology, Barcelona, Spain) CG Sunflower oil Supplementation time: 30 days | Muscle damage Blood Lactate Physical performance Absolute VO2 HR MPO Relative VO2 RP time VO2 VT2 | Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ Blood Lactate ↓*Absolute VO2 (6’) ↓* HR ↑* MPO ↓* Relative VO2 (6’) ↑* RP ↑* Time ↔ VO2 ↑* VT2 | Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↔ Blood Lactate ↓* Absolute VO2 (6’) ↓* HR ↑* MPO ↓* Relative VO2 (6’) ↑* RP ↑* Time ↑* VO2 CG Changes from baseline ↔ Blood Lactate ↔ Absolute VO2 (6’) ↔ HR ↔ MPO ↔ Relative VO2 (6’) ↔ RP ↔ time ↔ VO2 |
Barquilha et al. [37], 2023, Brazil | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial | n = 21 ♂ Gn-3 n = 8 CG n = 8 Physically active Age: 20–30 years Study withdrawals: Gn-3 n = 3 CG n = 2 | Gn-3 3 capsules Per unit: 260 mg EPA + 202 mg DHA 3 times daily (Capsule Naturalis Nutricao & Farma LTDA, Sao Paulo, Brazil) Supplementation time: 6 weeks | Hematology Heme Iron Iron Hormones T/C Inflammatory biomarkers CRP IL-6 Muscle damage CK LDH Oxidative stress GSH GSSG GSH/GSSG TEAC | Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ Heme Iron ↔ Iron ↓ CRP ↓ IL-6 ↓ CK ↓ LDH ↑* GSH ↓* GSSG ↑* GSH/GSSG ↔TEAC | Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↔T/C ↓* CRP ↓* IL-6 ↓ CK ↓ LDH |
Brook et al. [38], 2021, United Kingdon | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial | n = 16 ♀ Recreationally active Gn-3 n = 8 ♀ Age (mean ± SD) 64.4 ± 0.8 years Height (mean ± SD) 162 ± 0.02 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 70.5 ± 2.5 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 26.6 ± 0.7 kg/m2 % Fat (mean ± SD) 40.8 ± 1.1% Lean Mass (mean ± SD) 39.4 ± 1.1 kg CG n = 8 ♀ Age (mean ± SD) 66.5 ± 1.4 years Height (mean ± SD) 158 ± 0.02 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 64.3 ± 1.9 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 2.8 ± 0.9 kg/m2 % Fat (mean ± SD) 39.1 ± 1.6% Lean Mass (mean ± SD) 37.1 ± 1.6 kg Study withdrawals: 0 | Gn-3 Per unit: 1860 mg EPA +1540 mg DHA (Minami Epacor) CG Cornoil Supplementation time: 6 weeks | Anthropometry BM Bone mass FFM LBM Muscle function ASR Calpain MAFbx MPS Myonuclei SC Ubiquitin VL Physical performance 1-RM MVC | Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ BM ↔ Bone mass ↔ FFM ↔ LBM ↔ ASR untrained leg (0–6 weeks) ↔ Calpain ↔ MAFbx ↔ MPS untrained leg ↔ Myonuclei type I-II fibre ↔ SC type I fibre ↔ Ubiquitin ↑ 1-RM trained leg ↔ MCV trained leg ↔ MCV untrained leg | Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↔ BM ↔ Bone mass ↔ FFM ↔ LBM ↑* ASR untrained leg (0–2 weeks) ↑ ASR untrained leg (4–6 weeks) ↔ Calpain ↔ MAFbx ↔ MPS untrained leg (0–2 weeks) ↔ MPS untrained leg (0–4 weeks) ↑* Myonuclei type I-II fibre ↔ SC type I fibre ↔ Ubiquitin ↑ 1-RM trained leg ↔ MCV trained leg ↔ MCV untrained leg CG Changes from baseline ↔ BM ↔ Bone mass ↔ FFM ↔ LBM ↑* ASR untrained leg (0–2 weeks) ↔ ASR untrained leg (4–6 weeks) ↔ Calpain ↔ MAFbx ↑* MPS untrained leg (0–2 weeks) ↔ MPS untrained leg (2–4 weeks) ↑* Myonuclei type I-II fibre ↔ SC type I fibre ↔ Ubiquitin ↑ 1-RM trained leg ↔ MCV trained leg ↔ MCV untrained leg |
Heileson et al. [39], 2023, United States | Randomized, single-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial | n = 28 (n = 12 ♂ and n = 16 ♀) Recreationally Trained Gn-3 n = 10 n = 5 ♂ and n = 5 ♀ Age (mean ± SD) 28.0 ± 7.4 years Height (mean ± SD) 169.7 ± 9.6 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 75.1 ± 16.0 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 25.8 ± 3.5 kg/m2 % Fat (mean ± SD) 23.9 ± 6.9% CG n = 11 5 ♂ and 6 ♀ Age (mean ± SD) 30.5 ± 5.7 years Height (mean ± SD) 171.8 ± 8.9 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 79.0 ± 16.0 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 26.6 ± 4.3 kg/m2 % Fat (mean ± SD) 24.9 ± 8.0% Study withdrawals: Gn-3 n = 4 CG n = 3 | Gn-3 7 capsules 2.275 g/d EPA + 1.575 g/d DHA (Nordic Naturals, ProOmega, Watsonville, CA, USA) CG 5 capsules 4.5 g/d (NOW, Bloomingdale, IL, USA) Supplementation time: 10 weeks | Anthropometry LBM FM BF Biochemistry DBS Physical performance absolute 1RMBP absolute 1RMSQT ∆ relative 1RMBP ∆ relative 1RMSQT | Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ LBM ↔ FM ↔ BF ↑* DBS ↑* absolute1RMBP ↔ absolute 1RMSQT ↑* ∆ relative 1RMBP ↑* ∆ relative 1RMSQT | Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↑ LBM ↓ FM ↓ BF ↑* DBS ↑ absolute 1RMBP ↑ absolute 1RMSQT ↑* ∆ relative 1RMBP ↑* ∆ relative 1RMSQT CG Changes from baseline ↑ LBM ↓ FM ↔ BF ↔ DBS ↑ absolute 1RMBP ↑ absolute 1RMSQT ↑* ∆ relative 1RMBP ↑* ∆ relative 1RMSQT |
Jakeman et al. [40], 2017, United Kingdom | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial | n = 27 ♂ Physically active > 3 h/week of vigorous athletic training + HIIT High Gn-3 n = 9 Age (mean ± SD) 25.5 ± 5.2 years Height (mean ± SD) 1.74 ± 0.06 m Weight (mean ± SD) 76.5 ± 12.6 kg Low Gn-3 n = 9 Age (mean ± SD) 25.6 ± 4.8 years Height (mean ± SD) 1.82 ± 0.09 m Weight (mean ± SD 80.2 ± 12.0 kg CG n = 9 Age (mean ± SD) 26.2 ± 4.2 years Height (mean ± SD) 1.78 ± 0.01 m Weight (mean ± SD 82.9 ± 12.1 kg Study withdrawals: 0 | Gn-3 1 g/capsule Dose: 1 g/10 kg BM High Gn-3 (EPA 750 mg + DHA 50 mg)/capsule Low Gn-3 (EPA 150 mg + DHA 100 mg)/ capsule CG Oil (flavour masker and gelatine) Supplementation time: 1 day | Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 Muscle damage CK Perception markers VAS Physical performace CJ Knee extensor strength SJ | High Gn-3, Low Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ IL-6 ↔ CK ↔ VAS ↔ CJ ↔ Knee extensor strength ↑* SJ | High Gn-3, Low Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↔ IL-6 ↑* CK (24 h) ↑* VAS (24 h) ↓ (at 96 h) ↓ CJ (at 1 h) ↓* Knee extensor strength to 60° s−1 and 180° s−1(1 h–96 h) ↓* SJ (at 1 h) |
Lee et al. [41], 2022, United States | Randomized, placebo-controlled trial | n = 28 (n = 10 ♂ and n = 18 ♀) Physically active RET-G n-3 n = 10 Age (mean ± SD) 67.1 ± 4.4 years Height (mean ± SD) 171.6 ± 9.3 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 70.8 ± 13.5 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 24.0 ± 3.2 kg/m2 RET n = 10 Age (mean ± SD) 66.6 ± 7.3 years Height (mean ± SD) 167.9 ± 5.7 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 66.5 ± 11.5 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 23.5 ± 3.6 kg/m2 CG n = 8 Age (mean ± SD) 66.5 ± 5.0 years Height (mean ± SD) 167.2 ± 10.24 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 68.9 ± 15.8 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 24.3 ± 3.4 kg/m2 Study withdrawals: 0 | RET- Gn-3: 3 capsules/day Per unit: 700 mg EPA + 240 mg DHA RET 3 capsules/day Safflower oil CG 3 capsules/day Safflower oil Supplementation time: 12 weeks | Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 CRP TNF-α Metabolism TMR FAT oxidation CHO oxidation Physical Performance 1RM lat pull-dow 1RM leg-press 1RM seated row 1RM calf rise 1RM biceps curl VO2 VCO2 RER | RET-Gn-3 vs. RET vs. CG ↓* IL-6 (RET-Gn-3 vs. CG) ↓* CRP ↓* TNF-α (RET-Gn-3 vs. CG) ↔ TMR ↑* 1RM lat pull-dow (RET-Gn-3, RET) ↑* 1RM leg-press (RET-Gn-3, RET) ↑* 1RM seated row (RET-Gn-3, RET) ↑* 1RM calf rise (RET-Gn-3, RET) ↑* 1RM biceps curl (RET-Gn-3, RET) ↑* VO2 ↑* VCO2 ↓* RER | RET-Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↓* IL-6 ↓* CRP ↓ TNF-α ↑* TMR ↑* FAT oxidation ↓* CHO oxidation ↑* 1RM in lateral pull ↑* 1RM leg-press ↑* 1RM seated row ↑* 1RM calf rise ↑* 1RM biceps curl ↑* VO2 ↑* VCO2 ↓* RER RET Changes from baseline ↔ IL-6 ↔ CRP↔ TNF-α ↑* TMR↑ FAT oxidation ↓ CHO oxidation ↑* 1RM in lateral pull ↑* 1RM leg-press ↑* 1RM seated row ↑* 1RM calf rise ↑* 1RM biceps curl ↑* VO2 ↑* VCO2 ↔ RER CG Changes from baseline ↔ IL-6 ↔ CRP ↑ TNF-α ↔ TMR ↔ FAT oxidation ↔ CHO oxidation ↓* 1RM in lateral pull ↓* 1RM leg-press ↔ 1RM seated row ↓* 1RM calf rise ↓* 1RM biceps curl ↔ VO2 ↔ VCO2 ↔ RER |
Lembke et al. [16], 2014, United States | Randomized, Single-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial | n = 69 ♂ and ♀ Physically active Gn-3 n = 42 Age (mean ± SD) 18.6 ± 1.2 years CG n = 22 Age (mean ± SD) 18.9 ± 1.1 years Study withdrawals: 5 | Gn-3 6 capsules 2.7 g/day (KD Pharma, Bexbach, Germany) CG 6 capsules High oleic sunflower oil Supplementation time: 30 days | Inflammatory biomarkers CRP Muscle damage Blood lactate CK Perception markers VAS POMS Physical Performance ROM Torque | Gn-3 vs. CG ↓* CRP ↓* Blood lactate ↔ CK (48 -96 h) ↓* VAS (at 72, at 96 h) ↑* POMS (72 h) ↔ ROM ↔ Torque | Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↓* CRP ↔ CK ↓ VAS ↓ POMS (at 48 h and 96 h) ↑ POMS (at 48 h, and at 96 h CG) ↓ ROM ↓ Torque (until 48 h) |
Mullins et al. [42], 2022, United States | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial | n =38 ♂ Competitive Gn-3 n =12 CG n = 17 Study withdrawals: Gn-3 n =7 CG n = 2 | Gn-3 Soft gel capsules Per unit: 1 g: 407 mg/g DHA+ 170 mg/g EPA Pharmavite (West Hills, California) CG Per capsule 713 mg/g oleic acid + 130 mg/g linoleic acid (safflower oil) Pharmavite (West Hills, California) Supplementation time: 26 weeks | Biochemistry Plasma AA Plasma DHA Plasma DPA Plasma EPA Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 TNF-α Injury Neurofilament | Gn-3 vs.CG ↔ Plasma AA ↓* Plasma DHA (0–7 weeks) ↑* Plasma DHA (8–26 weeks) ↓* Plasma DPA (week 33) ↑* Plasma EPA(week 8,12,17,21) ↔ IL-6 ↔ TNF-α ↔ Neurofilament | Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↓*Plasma AA (week 8,12,17,21,26) ↑*Plasma DHA ↑*Plasma DPA (week 8) ↑*Plasma EPA (week 8,12,17,21,26) ↔IL-6 ↔TNF-α ↑Neurofilament CG Changes from baseline ↔Plasma AA ↔Plasma DHA ↔Plasma DPA ↔Plasma EPA ↔IL-6 ↔TNF-α ↑Neurofilament |
Nieman et al. [43], 2015, United States | Randomized (1:1 allocation), placebo-controlled, crossover trial | n = 24 16 ♂ and 8 ♀ Competitive runners Age (mean ± SD) 38.0 ±1.7 year Height (mean ± SD) 1.72 ±0.02 m Weight (mean ± SD) 71.8 ± 3.0 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 19.9 ±1.6 VO2max (mean ± SD) 47.9 ±1.6 Study withdrawals: 0 | Gn-3 0.5 L water with chia seed oil 0.43 g ALA/BM (Dole Foods California, USA), CG 0.5 L of flavored water alone Supplementation time: two occasions separated by 2 weeks | Biochemistry Plasma glucose Leukocyte Plasma ALA Hormones Cortisol Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 IL-8 IL-10 TNF-α Muscle damage Blood lactate Perception markers RPE Physical performance HR RER VO2 | Gn-3 vs.CG ↓ Plasma glucose ↔ Leukocyte ↑* Plasma ALA ↑* Cortisol ↓ IL-6 ↓ IL-8 ↓ IL10 ↓TNF-α ↓ Blood lactate ↓ RPE ↔ HR ↔ RER ↓VO2 | Changes from baseline ↑ Plasma glucose ↑* Leukocyte ↑* Plasma ALA ↑* Cortisol ↑* IL-6 ↑* IL-8 ↑* IL10 ↑* TNF-α ↑ Blood lactate |
Tomczyk et al. [33], 2024, Poland | Randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial | n = 40 ♂ Endurance runners Gn-3 n = 14 Age (mean ± SD) 37 ± 3 years Height (mean ± SD) 181 ± 7 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 76 ± 11 kg HRmax (mean ± SD) 190 ± 9 beats/min−1 CG n =12 Age (mean ± SD) 37 ± 4 years Height (mean ± SD) 180 ± 4 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 78 ± 8 kg HRmax (mean ± SD) 186 ± 9 beats/min−1 Study withdrawals: 14 | Gn-3 2234 mg/d EPA + 930 mg/d DHA CG 4000 mg/d MCT Supplementation time: 12 weeks | Biochemistry Red blood cell DHA Plasma DHA Red blood cell EPA Plasma EPA Plasma Trp metabolites (7) Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 Perception markers EA HT TA | Gn-3 vs. CG IL-6 Red blood cell DHA Plasma DHA Red blood cell EPA Plasma EPA Plasma Trp metabolites ↔ EA ↔ HT ↔ TA | Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↑* Red blood cell DHA ↑* Plasma DHA ↑* Red blood cell EPA ↑* Plasma EPA ↑* Plasma Trp metabolites ↔ IL-6 ↔ EA ↔ HT ↔ TA CG Changes from baseline ↔ Red blood cell DHA ↔ Plasma DHA ↔ Red blood cell EPA ↔ Plasma EPA ↔ Plasma Trp metabolites ↔ IL-6 ↔ EA ↔ HT ↔ TA |
Tsuchiya, et al. [34], 2021, Japan | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial | n =23 ♂ Recreational Gn-3 n = 11 Age (mean ± SD) 20.2 ± 0.4 years Height (mean ± SD) 167.4 ± 5.4 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 65.0 ± 8.9 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 17.2 ± 6.9% BMI (mean ± SD) 23.2 ± 2.9 kg/m2 CG n = 11 Age (mean ± SD) 19.8 ± 1.5 years Height (mean ± SD) 169.0 ± 7.8 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 65.4 ± 8.4 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 15.7 ± 7.6% BMI (mean ± SD) 23.2 ± 3.3 kg/m2 Study withdrawals: 1 | Gn-3: 8 Softgel capsule of 300 mg /d Total: 2.4 g/d (600 mg EPA + 260 mg DHA) Nippon Suisan Kaisha Ltd., Tokyo, Japan CG: 8 softgel capsules of 300 mg/d corn oil Supplementation time: 4.5 weeks | Anthropometry UAC Biochemistry Blood lipids AA EPA DGLA DHA Dietary Intake Kcal CHO prot FAT Omega-3 Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 Muscle damage CK Perception markers VAS Physical Performance Echo thickness Echo intensity MVIC ROM | Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ UAC ↑* EPA ↔ Kcal ↔ CHO ↔ prot ↔ FAT ↔ Omega-3 ↔ IL-6 ↓* CK ↔ VAS ↔ Echo thickness ↔ Echo intensity ↔ MVIC ↑* ROM (IP) | Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↑*UAC (IP) ↑* EPA (after 4 w) ↔ AA ↔ DGLA ↔ DHA ↔ Kcal ↔ CHO ↔ prot ↔ FAT ↔ Omega-3 ↔ CK ↔ IL-6 ↑* VAS (1–4 d) ↔ Echo thickness ↑ Echo intensity ↓* MVIC ROM: G n-3: ↓* IP and 1 d, after ↑ = to pre |
Tsuchiya et al. [17], 2016, Japan | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial | n = 24 ♂ Recreational Gn-3 n = 12 Age (mean ± SD) 19.4 ± 0.7 years Height (mean ± SD) 174.4 ± 5.6 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 64.3 ± 7.7 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 13.0 ± 3.5% CG n =12 Age (mean ± SD) 19.5 ± 0.8 years Height (mean ± SD) 174.3 ± 6.7 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 66.2 ± 8.0 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 13.6 ± 2.8% Study withdrawals: 0 | Gn-3 8 Softgel capsule Fish oil Per unit: 300 mg EPA + 130 mg DHA (Nippon Suisan Kaisha Ltd. Tokyo) CG 8 Softgel capsule Per unit: 300 mg corn oil (Nippon Suisan Kaisha Ltd. Tokyo) Supplementation time: 8 weeks prior to exercise + 5 days after exercise | Anthropometry UAC Biochemistry AA DHA Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 TNF-α Muscle damage CK Mb Perception markers VAS brachii VAS brachialis VAS brachioradialis Physical Performance MVC torque ROM | Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ UAC ↔ AA ↔ DHA ↓* IL-6 ↔ TNF-α ↔ CK ↔ Mb ↔ VAS brachii ↓* VAS brachialis ↔VAS brachioradialis ↑* MVC ↑* ROM | Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↔ UAC ↔ AA ↔ DHA ↔ IL-6 ↔ TNF-α ↔ CK ↔ Mb ↑ VAS brachii (at day 1–3) ↑* VAS brachialis (at day 2) ↔VAS brachioradialis ↓*MVC ↓ ROM CG Changes from baseline ↔ UAC ↔ AA ↔ DHA ↑* IL-6 (at day 3) ↔ TNF-α ↔ CK ↑* Mb ↑ VAS brachii (day 1 to day 3) ↑* VAS brachialis (day 1 to day 3) ↔ VAS brachioradialis ↓* MVC ↓* ROM (at day 3) |
VanDusseldrorp et al. [35], 2020, United States | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial | n = 32 (16 ♂ and 16 ♀) Physically active: 3 to 5 d/w, minimum of 3 h/w and a maximum of 8 h/w and no more than 2 h/w of aerobic exercise 2 g Gn-3 n = 8 (4♂ and 4♀) Age (mean ± SD) 23.5 ± 3.3 years Height (mean ± SD) 170.9 ± 6.9 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 76.1 ± 14.2 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 20.8 ± 4.1% 4g Gn-3 n = 8 (4♂ and 4♀) Age (mean ± SD) 23.3 ± 3.0 years Height (mean ± SD) 172.9 ± 4.7 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 69.7 ± 15.9 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 19.0 ± 6.2% 6g Gn-3 n = 8 (4♂ and 4♀) Age (mean ± SD) 23.8 ± 2.8 years Height (mean ± SD) 173.8 ± 7.6 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 72.8 ± 13.5 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 19.4 ± 6.1% CG n = 8 (4♂ and 4♀) Age (mean ± SD) 23.0 ± 3.0 years Height (mean ± SD) 173.6 ± 6.2 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 67.9 ± 10.7 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 20.6 ± 7.2% Study withdrawals: 0 | Gn-3 Capsule Per unit: 400 mg EPA + 300 mg DHA 2 g Gn-3 2 g/d (1400 mg: 800 mg EPA + 600 mg DHA) 4 g Gn-3 4 g/d (2800 mg: 1600 mg EPA + 1200 mg DHA) 6g Gn-3 6 g/d (4200 mg: 2400 mg EPA + 1800 mg DHA) (MusclePharm, Denver, USA) CG Safflower oil (Capsule Muscle Pharm) Supplementation time: 7.5 weeks | Muscle damage CK LDH Perception markers VAS Performance MVIC VJ height 40 yd Sprint | 2 g Gn-3, 4g Gn-, 6g Gn-3 vs. CG 24 h: ↓*6 g Gn-3 vs. 2 g Gn-3 48 h: ↓* 6 g Gn-3 vs. 4 g Gn-3 72 h: ↓* 6 g Gn-3 vs. CG LDH ↓* 6 g Gn-3 vs. CG (at to 72 h) ↓* 6 g Gn-3 vs. 2 g Gn-3 (at to 72 h) VAS 2 h: CG ↑* vs. 6 g Gn-3 24 h: ↓* 4 g Gn-3 vs. CG ↑* CG vs. 6 g Gn-3 48 h: ↑* CG vs. 6 g Gn-3 ↓* 6 g Gn-3 vs. 4 g Gn-3, 2 g Gn-3 72 h: ↑* CG vs. 4 g Gn-3 ↑* CG vs. 6 g Gn-3 ↔ MVIC ↓* VJ height CG ↔ 40 yd Sprint | Changes from baseline ↑* CK in all group ↑* LDH in all group ↓* 40 yd Sprint VAS ↓* MVIC (until 70 h) ↓ VJ height (until 48 h) ↑* in all group (24 h) ↑* CG, 2 g Gn-3, 4 g Gn-3 (48 h) |
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Fernández-Lázaro, D.; Arribalzaga, S.; Gutiérrez-Abejón, E.; Azarbayjani, M.A.; Mielgo-Ayuso, J.; Roche, E. Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on Post-Exercise Inflammation, Muscle Damage, Oxidative Response, and Sports Performance in Physically Healthy Adults—A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients 2024, 16, 2044. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16132044
Fernández-Lázaro D, Arribalzaga S, Gutiérrez-Abejón E, Azarbayjani MA, Mielgo-Ayuso J, Roche E. Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on Post-Exercise Inflammation, Muscle Damage, Oxidative Response, and Sports Performance in Physically Healthy Adults—A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients. 2024; 16(13):2044. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16132044
Chicago/Turabian StyleFernández-Lázaro, Diego, Soledad Arribalzaga, Eduardo Gutiérrez-Abejón, Mohammad Ali Azarbayjani, Juan Mielgo-Ayuso, and Enrique Roche. 2024. "Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on Post-Exercise Inflammation, Muscle Damage, Oxidative Response, and Sports Performance in Physically Healthy Adults—A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials" Nutrients 16, no. 13: 2044. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16132044