Astaxanthin Bioactivity Is Determined by Stereoisomer Composition and Extraction Method
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Sources of Astaxanthin
3.2. Differential Activity of Astaxanthin Stereoisomers
3.3. Mechanisms of Astaxanthin Bioactivity
3.4. Evolution of Carotenoids
4. Discussion
4.1. Mitochondrial Targeting Makes Astaxanthin an Exceptionally Effective Antioxidant
4.2. Mitochondrial Dysfunction Is at the Core of Many Contemporary Diseases
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Stereoisomer | Primary Source | Localization | Bioavailability | Bioactivity |
---|---|---|---|---|
3S,3′S | Haematococcus pluvialis [10] Paracoccus carotinifaciens [11] Salmo salar [2] | Mitochondria, membrane insertion | high | Anti-oxidation Anti-inflammatory Facilitates mitochondria function Strengthens immunity Promotes fertility UV protection Colorant |
3R,3′S | Penaeus monodon [12] Litopenaeus vannamei [13] Synthetic—petroleum [14] | Float freely in cells | low | Anti-oxidation Colorant |
3R,3′R | Phaffia rhodozyma [15] Euphausia superba [16] | Float freely in cells | low | Anti-oxidation Colorant |
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Snell, T.W.; Carberry, J. Astaxanthin Bioactivity Is Determined by Stereoisomer Composition and Extraction Method. Nutrients 2022, 14, 1522. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14071522
Snell TW, Carberry J. Astaxanthin Bioactivity Is Determined by Stereoisomer Composition and Extraction Method. Nutrients. 2022; 14(7):1522. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14071522
Chicago/Turabian StyleSnell, Terry W., and John Carberry. 2022. "Astaxanthin Bioactivity Is Determined by Stereoisomer Composition and Extraction Method" Nutrients 14, no. 7: 1522. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14071522