Food and Nutrient Displacement by Walnut Supplementation in a Randomized Crossover Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Subjects
2.2. Study Design
2.3. Dietary Interventions
2.4. Measurement of Dietary Intake
2.5. Data Analysis
2.5.1. Estimation of Nutrient Displacement
2.5.2. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Subjects
3.2. Nutrient and Food Profile
3.3. Nutrient and Food Displacement
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Mean ± SD | n (%) |
---|---|---|
Age (years) | 54.30 ± 10.62 | |
BMI (kg/m2) | 26.37 ± 3.58 | |
Weight (kg) | 75.91 ± 14.25 | |
Height (cm) | 148.87 ± 10.37 | |
Gender | ||
Male | 40 (43.0) | |
Female | 50 (57.0) | |
BMI classifications | ||
Normal (18.5–24.9) | 30 (33.0) | |
Overweight (25–29.9) | 48 (52.8) | |
Obese (≥30) | 13 (14.2) |
Variable | Male | Female | All | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Walnut-Suppl Diet (W) | Habitual Diet (H) | Difference (W − H) | Walnut-Suppl Diet (W) | Habitual Diet (H) | Difference (W − H) | Walnut-Suppl Diet (W) | Habitual Diet (H) | Difference (W − H) | |
Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | |
Macronutrients | |||||||||
Energy, kcal | 2274.6 ± 502.0 | 2186.6 ± 604.9 | 87.9 ± 368.3 | 1638.5 ± 358.2 | 1511.3 ± 343.2 | 127.2 ± 211.7 * | 1914.1 ± 529.3 | 1804.0 ± 579.4 | 110.2 ± 288.9 * |
Total Carbohydrate, g | 286 ± 75.6 | 295.4 ± 82.9 | −9.4 ± 50.1 | 201.4 ± 52.3 | 202.5 ± 56.5 | −1.2 ± 35.3 | 238.0 ± 75.8 | 242.8 ± 82.9 | −4.8 ± 42.3 |
Total Protein, g | 81.8 ± 20.8 | 86.16 ± 32.47 | −0.86 ± 19.6 | 61.4 ± 14.5 | 59.7 ± 14.6 | 1.7 ± 10.5 | 70.3 ± 20.2 | 69.7 ± 22.4 | 0.6 ± 15.1 |
Animal Protein, g | 48.0 ± 18.9 | 49.7 ± 20.7 | −1.7 ± 17.7 | 36.0 ± 12.2 | 37.9 ± 13.3 | −1.9 ± 10.4 | 41.2 ± 16.5 | 43.0 ± 17.8 | −1.8 ± 13.9 |
Vegetable Protein, g | 33.3 ± 8.5 | 32.5 ± 13.0 | 0.8 ± 8.6 | 25.0 ± 6.1 | 21.4 ± 7.0 | 3.6 ± 6.3 * | 28.6 ± 8.3 | 26.2 ± 11.4 | 2.4 ± 7.5 * |
Total Fat, g | 93.2 ± 25.6 | 77.5 ± 28.2 | 15.7 ± 19.8 * | 69.5 ± 18.7 | 52.9 ± 16.6 | 16.6 ± 10.8 * | 79.8 ± 24.8 | 63.5 ± 25.4 | 16.2 ± 15.3 * |
Total SFA, g | 24.8 ± 8.6 | 25.2 ± 10.1 | −0.4 ± 7.8 | 18.8 ± 7.1 | 17.4 ± 6.5 | 1.4 ± 4.1 * | 21.4 ± 8.3 | 20.8 ± 9.1 | 0.6 ± 6.0 |
Total MUFA, g | 29.1 ± 10.0 | 29.6 ± 11.1 | −0.5 ± 8.6 | 21.0 ± 6.7 | 19.9 ± 6.5 | 1.1 ± 4.7 | 24.5 ± 9.2 | 24.1 ± 10.0 | 0.4 ± 6.7 |
MUFA 18:1, g | 27.4 ± 9.4 | 27.7 ± 10.4 | −0.4 ± 8.1 | 19.7 ± 6.4 | 18.6 ± 6.1 | 1.1 ± 4.5 | 23.0 ± 8.7 | 22.6 ± 9.4 | 0.5 ± 6.3 |
Total PUFA, g | 32.4 ± 7.3 | 16.3 ± 6.5 | 16.1 ± 5.6 * | 24.8 ± 5.2 | 11.3 ± 4.4 | 13.5 ± 3.7 * | 28.1 ± 7.2 | 13.5 ± 5.9 | 14.6 ± 4.8 * |
PUFA 18:2. g | 27.2 ± 6.3 | 14.4 ± 5.9 | 12.8 ± 5.0 * | 20.6 ± 4.5 | 9.8 ± 3.9 | 10.8 ± 3.3 * | 23.5 ± 6.3 | 11.8 ± 5.4 | 11.7 ± 4.2 * |
PUFA 18:3, g | 5.0 ± 1.0 | 1.5 ± 0.7 | 3.5 ± 0.8 * | 4.0 ± 0.8 | 1.2 ± 0.5 | 2.8 ± 0.5 * | 4.4 ± 1.0 | 1.3 ± 0.6 | 3.1 ± 0.7 * |
PUFA 20:4, g | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | −0.0 ± 0.1 | 0.1 ± 0.0 | 0.1 ± 0.0 | −0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | −0.0 ± 0.1 |
PUFA 20:5, g | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | −0.0 ± 0.1 * | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | −0.0 ± 0.1 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | −0.0 ± 0.1 * |
PUFA 22:6, g | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.1 ± 0.2 | −0.0 ± 0.1 * | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | −0.0 ± 0.1 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | −0.0 ± 0.1 * |
Alcohol, g | 4.0 ± 7.9 | 3.7 ± 7.5 | 0.3 ± 2.7 | 1.7 ± 2.7 | 2.9 ± 5.1 | −1.2 ± 3.7 | 2.7 ± 5.6 | 3.3 ± 6.2 | −0.6 ± 3.4 |
Cholesterol, mg | 241.2 ± 109.1 | 257.9 ± 144.7 | −16.7 ± 127.3 | 177.1 ± 80.8 | 196.4 ± 78.6 | −19.3 ± 63.7 | 204.9 ± 98.8 | 223.1 ± 115.5 | −18.2 ± 95.9 |
Total Dietary Fiber, g | 24.2 ± 6.3 | 23.6 ± 6.8 | 0.6 ± 3.6 | 18.8 ± 4.6 | 16.7 ± 4.3 | 2.1 ± 4.4 * | 21.1 ± 6.0 | 19.7 ± 6.5 | 1.5 ± 4.1 * |
Variable | Male | Female | All | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Walnut-Suppl Diet (W) | Habitual Diet (H) | Difference (W − H) | Walnut-Suppl Diet (W) | Habitual Diet (H) | Difference (W − H) | Walnut-Suppl Diet (W) | Habitual Diet (H) | Difference (W − H) | |
Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | |
Vitamins | |||||||||
Total Vitamin A, µg | 1289.6 ± 804.7 | 1249.6 ± 672.6 | 40.0 ± 563.8 | 1023.9 ± 538.1 | 954.8 ± 458.2 | 69.2 ± 406.3 | 1139.1 ± 675.7 | 1082.5 ± 576.8 | 56.5 ± 478.2 |
Vitamin C, mg | 113.2 ± 50.7 | 106.6 ± 49.8 | 6.6 ± 257.9 | 94.0 ± 46.5 | 100.2 ± 43.8 | −6.1 ± 33.2 | 102.3 ± 49.0 | 102.9 ± 46.3 | −0.6 ± 39.6 |
Total Folate, µg | 451.3 ± 103.2 | 454.0 ± 143.2 | −2.7 ± 102.0 | 361.7 ± 107.4 | 348.4 ± 114.8 | 13.3 ± 98.0 | 400.5 ± 114.1 | 394.2 ± 137.6 | 6.3 ± 99.5 |
Beta-Carotene, µg | 4622.9 ± 4401.4 | 4376.1 ± 3215.2 | 246.8 ± 3276 | 3868.5 ± 2933.8 | 3497.3 ± 2399.9 | 371.2 ± 2254 | 4195.4 ± 3639.8 | 3878.0 ± 2800.2 | 317.3 ± 2727.6 |
Retinol, µg | 519.1 ± 469.2 | 520.2 ± 490.5 | −1.1 ± 176.9 | 379.2 ± 243.0 | 371.9 ± 265.9 | 7.3 ± 124 | 439.8 ± 363.4 | 436.2 ± 384.6 | 3.7 ± 148.4 |
Total Vit E, mg | 10.1 ± 3.0 | 10.9 ± 4.2 | −0.7 ± 4.1 | 8.4 ± 3.9 | 8.2 ± 4.3 | 0.2 ± 3.1 | 9.2 ± 3.6 | 9.4 ± 4.4 | −0.2 ± 3.5 |
Minerals | |||||||||
Calcium, mg | 855.9 ± 306.7 | 841.3 ± 313.5 | 14.6 ± 247.8 | 732.3 ± 376.8 | 679.7 ± 348.5 | 52.6 ± 176.8 * | 785.8 ± 351.7 | 749.7 ± 341.6 | 36.1 ± 210.1 * |
Phosphorus, mg | 1394.5 ± 328.6 | 1352.7 ± 381.0 | 41.9 ± 273.4 | 1082.3 ± 338.1 | 994.8 ± 320.5 | 87.5 ± 156.7 * | 1217.6 ± 366.8 | 1149.9 ± 389.2 | 67.7 ± 215.0 * |
Magnesium, mg | 376.9 ± 77.7 | 344.3 ± 90.1 | 32.6 ± 60.4 * | 294.5 ± 72.1 | 255.7 ± 72.2 | 38.8 ± 44.7 * | 330.2 ± 84.8 | 294.1 ± 91.3 | 36.1 ± 51.8 * |
Iron, mg | 17.6 ± 5.3 | 17.6 ± 5.2 | −0.1 ± 5.3 | 13.2 ± 4.3 | 12.4 ± 4.6 | 0.8 ± 3.3 | 15.1 ± 5.2 | 14.7 ± 5.5 | 0.4 ± 4.3 |
Zinc, mg | 11.5 ± 3.3 | 11.7 ± 3.6 | −0.1 ± 2.9 | 9.6 ± 5.4 | 7.9 ± 3.1 | 1.7 ± 5.2 * | 10.5 ± 4.7 | 9.6 ± 3.8 | 0.9 ± 4.4 * |
Copper, mg | 2.0 ± 0.5 | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 0.5 ± 0.3 * | 1.5 ± 0.4 | 1.1 ± 0.3 | 0.5 ± 0.3 * | 1.8 ± 0.5 | 1.3 ± 0.5 | 0.5 ± 0.3 |
Potassium, mg | 3182.9 ± 686.3 | 3067.8 ± 716.3 | 115.1 ± 595.9 | 2503.8 ± 651.8 | 2416.2 ± 633.5 | 87.6 ± 397.5 | 2798.1 ± 744.5 | 2698.6 ± 741.6 | 99.5 ± 490.5 |
Walnut Supplement | Diet | Food Displacement | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Food Groups, Servings per Day | (S) * | Habitual (H) | Walnut (W) | Absolute (D) | % | |
(S + H) − W | D/S X100 ** | SEM | ||||
Grains, breads, starches | 1.24 | 3.77 | 3.39 | 1.62 | 128.18 | 9.27 |
Vegetables and legumes | 1.23 | 3.31 | 3.12 | 1.42 | 112.48 | 10.82 |
Fruits and related products | 1.20 | 2.19 | 2.12 | 1.27 | 104.24 | 8.72 |
Meat, fish, & poultry | 1.17 | 1.72 | 1.47 | 1.42 | 116.00 | 6.53 |
Dairy products and eggs | 1.23 | 3.52 | 3.34 | 1.41 | 107.78 | 17.34 |
Fats and oils | 1.23 | 1.93 | 1.77 | 1.39 | 112.78 | 7.11 |
Nuts other than walnuts & seeds | 1.30 | 0.82 | 0.71 | 1.41 | 115.44 | 6.22 |
All nuts and seeds | 1.01 | 0.75 | 1.32 | 0.44 | 35.10 | 4.81 |
Water | 1.18 | 4.91 | 4.62 | 1.47 | 118.49 | 14.42 |
Alcoholic beverages | 1.32 | 1.18 | 1.25 | 1.25 | 101.50 | 6.65 |
Non-alcoholic beverages | 1.20 | 2.99 | 3.12 | 1.07 | 83.89 | 10.92 |
Desserts | 1.25 | 1.19 | 1.42 | 1.02 | 82.80 | 11.46 |
Candy, sugar, and sweets | 1.23 | 3.36 | 3.35 | 1.24 | 96.20 | 24.22 |
Gravy, soups, and sauces | 1.18 | 1.09 | 0.98 | 1.29 | 100.88 | 12.10 |
Condiments | 1.23 | 4.20 | 4.06 | 1.37 | 110.74 | 18.57 |
Walnut Supplement | Diet | Nutrient Displacement | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nutrient | (S) * | Habitual (H) | Walnut (W) | Absolute (D) | % | |
S + H − W | D/S X100 ** | SEM | ||||
Macronutrients | ||||||
Energy, kcal | 213.9 | 1804.0 | 1914.1 | 103.8 | 48.5 | 7.3 |
Total Carbohydrate, g | 2.3 | 242.8 | 238.0 | 7.1 | 308.7 | 18.5 |
Total Protein, g | 3.1 | 69.7 | 70.3 | 2.5 | 80.6 | 9.5 |
Vegetable Protein, g | 4.5 | 26.2 | 28.6 | 2.1 | 46.7 | 7.2 |
Total Fat, g | 39.1 | 63.5 | 79.8 | 22.8 | 58.3 | 8.0 |
Total SFA, g | 2.5 | 20.8 | 21.4 | 1.9 | 76.0 | 9.2 |
Total MUFA, g | 1.7 | 24.1 | 24.5 | 1.3 | 76.5 | 9.2 |
MUFA 18:1, g | 1.9 | 22.6 | 23.0 | 1.5 | 78.9 | 9.4 |
Total PUFA, g | 34.1 | 13.5 | 28.1 | 19.5 | 57.2 | 8.0 |
PUFA 18:2, g | 2.64 | 11.8 | 23.5 | −9.06 | −343.2 | 19.2 |
PUFA 18:3, g | 6.5 | 1.3 | 4.4 | 3.4 | 52.3 | 7.6 |
PUFA 20:4, g | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 100.0 | 10.5 |
PUFA 20:5, g | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.3 | 150.0 | 12.9 |
PUFA 22:6, g | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 100.0 | 10.5 |
Alcohol, g | 0.5 | 3.3 | 2.7 | 1.1 | 220.0 | 15.6 |
Total Dietary Fiber, g | 4.3 | 19.7 | 21.1 | 2.9 | 67.4 | 8.7 |
Walnut Supplement | Diet | Nutrient Displacement | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nutrient | (S) * | Habitual (H) | Walnut (W) | Absolute (D) | % | |
S + H − W | D/S X100 ** | SEM | ||||
Vitamins | ||||||
Total Vitamin A, µg | 91.3 | 1082.5 | 1139.1 | 34.7 | 38.0 | 6.5 |
Vitamin C, mg | 0.2 | 102.9 | 102.3 | 0.8 | 400.0 | 21.1 |
Total Folate, µg | 18.3 | 394.2 | 400.5 | 12 | 65.6 | 8.5 |
Beta-Carotene, µg | 548.4 | 3878.0 | 4195.4 | 231 | 42.1 | 6.8 |
Retinol, µg | 7.4 | 436.2 | 439.8 | 3.8 | 51.4 | 7.6 |
Total Vit E, mg | 0.1 | 9.4 | 9.2 | 0.3 | 300.0 | 18.3 |
Minerals | ||||||
Calcium, mg | 80.2 | 749.7 | 785.8 | 44.1 | 55.0 | 78.2 |
Phosphorus, mg | 190.3 | 1149.9 | 1217.6 | 122.6 | 64.4 | 8.5 |
Magnesium, mg | 70.1 | 294.1 | 330.2 | 34 | 48.5 | 7.3 |
Iron, mg | 0.9 | 14.7 | 15.1 | 0.5 | 55.6 | 7.9 |
Zinc, mg | 2.1 | 9.6 | 10.5 | 1.2 | 57.1 | 8.0 |
Copper, mg | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.8 | 0.7 | 58.3 | 8.1 |
Potassium, mg | 210.4 | 2698.6 | 2798.1 | 110.9 | 52.7 | 7.7 |
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Natto, Z.S.; Siapco, G.; Jaceldo-Siegl, K.; Haddad, E.H.; Sabaté, J. Food and Nutrient Displacement by Walnut Supplementation in a Randomized Crossover Study. Nutrients 2022, 14, 1017. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14051017
Natto ZS, Siapco G, Jaceldo-Siegl K, Haddad EH, Sabaté J. Food and Nutrient Displacement by Walnut Supplementation in a Randomized Crossover Study. Nutrients. 2022; 14(5):1017. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14051017
Chicago/Turabian StyleNatto, Zuhair S., Gina Siapco, Karen Jaceldo-Siegl, Ella H. Haddad, and Joan Sabaté. 2022. "Food and Nutrient Displacement by Walnut Supplementation in a Randomized Crossover Study" Nutrients 14, no. 5: 1017. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14051017
APA StyleNatto, Z. S., Siapco, G., Jaceldo-Siegl, K., Haddad, E. H., & Sabaté, J. (2022). Food and Nutrient Displacement by Walnut Supplementation in a Randomized Crossover Study. Nutrients, 14(5), 1017. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14051017