Dietary and Nutrient Intake, Eating Habits, and Its Association with Maternal Gestational Weight Gain and Offspring’s Birth Weight in Pregnant Adolescents
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Dietary and Nutrient Intake, and Eating Habits
2.2. Anthropometric Data and Gestational Weight Gain
2.3. Neonatal Outcomes
2.4. Other Variables
2.5. Statistical Analyses
2.6. Ethical Aspects
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Dietary and Nutrients Intake and Eating Habits
4.2. Gestational Weight Gain
4.3. Dietary and Nutrient Intake, Eating Habits, and GWG
4.4. Dietary Intake, Eating Habits, and Birth Weight
4.5. Limitations and Strengths
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Food Group | Recommendation | Real Intake * |
Vegetables | >3 | 0 (0–1) |
Fruits | 3–4 | 1.5 (0.5–3) |
Grain and cereals | 8–11 | 8 (6–11) |
Legumes | 2–2.5 | 0 (0–0) |
Animal-source foods | 3.5–4 | 3 (2–4) |
Fat and oils | 3–5 | 2 (1–3) |
Milk and yogurt | 2–2.5 | 2 (1–2) |
Sugar table | <5 | 1 (0–2) |
Sugar sweetened beverages | 0 | 2 (0.5–11) |
Academia Nacional de Medicina 2015. México (Fernández-Gaxiola et al. 2015). * Median (p25–75). |
Appendix B
Gestational Weight Gain % | p-Value | Birth Weight | LGA, n = 20 | p-Value | ||
Insufficient | Excessive | SGA, n = 108 | ||||
Chronological age (years) | ||||||
≤15, n = 204 | 31.9 | 39.7 | 0.038 | 22.5 | 3.4 | 0.601 |
≥16, n = 326 | 42.9 | 32.5 | 19.0 | 4.0 | ||
Beginning antenatal care | ||||||
First, n = 89 | 37.1 | 33.7 | 0.762 | 15.7 | 3.4 | 0.134 |
Second, n = 338 | 37.9 | 37.0 | 21.0 | 5.0 | ||
Third, n = 103 | 42.7 | 31.1 | 22.3 | 0.0 | ||
Marital status | ||||||
Single, n = 323 | 37.8 | 37.2 | 0.525 | 20.4 | 4.3 | 0.694 |
Cohabiting, n = 207 | 40.1 | 32.4 | 20.3 | 2.9 | ||
Occupation | ||||||
Student, n = 57 | 42.1 | 36.8 | 0.655 | 19.3 | 1.8 | 0.668 |
Housewife, n = 473 | 38.3 | 35.1 | 20.5 | 4.0 | ||
Socioeconomic level | ||||||
Middle, n = 143 | 38.5 | 37.1 | 0.464 | 18.9 | 2.8 | 0.292 |
Low, n = 213 | 34.7 | 37.1 | 17.8 | 3.3 | ||
Very low, n = 174 | 43.7 | 31.6 | 24.7 | 5.1 | ||
School dropout | ||||||
No, n = 193 | 37.3 | 38.3 | 0.526 | 19.2 | 3.6 | 0.858 |
Yes, n = 337 | 39.5 | 33.5 | 21.1 | 3.9 | ||
Gestational age | ||||||
Term >37, n = 473 | 40.0 | 34.7 | 0.215 | 19.9 | 3.6 | 0.550 |
Preterm, n = 57 | 28.1 | 40.4 | 26.4 | 5.3 | ||
Number of prenatal visits | ||||||
≤6, n = 437 | 41.6 | 33.9 | 0.459 | 19.7 | 3.4 | 0.877 |
≥7, n = 93 | 36.4 | 36.4 | 20.9 | 4.0 | ||
Percentages estimated by rows. SGA: small for gestational age. LGA: large for gestational age. p-value determined by Pearson’s Chi-Square. |
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Food Group | Intake | Gestational Weight Gain (%) | Birth Weight (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Insufficient, n = 205 | Excessive, n = 187 | p-Value | SGA, n = 108 | LGA, n = 20 | p-Value | ||
Vegetables | Adequate, n = 37 | 32.4 | 37.8 | 0.785 | 27.0 | 5.4 | 0.472 |
Insufficient, n = 493 | 37.7 | 36.5 | 19.9 | 3.7 | |||
Fruits | Adequate, n = 149 | 33.6 | 36.2 | 0.335 | 21.5 | 3.4 | 0.891 |
Insufficient, n = 381 | 38.8 | 36.7 | 19.9 | 3.9 | |||
Legumes | Adequate, n = 54 | 42.6 | 20.4 | 0.023 | 16.7 | 1.9 | 0.536 |
Insufficient, n = 476 | 36.8 | 38.4 | 20.8 | 4.0 | |||
Cereal and grains | Adequate, 7–11 n = 203 | 33.5 | 36.9 | ≤0.001 | 23.6 | 3.0 | 0.256 |
Insufficient, <7 n = 211 | 53.1 | 20.4 | 20.4 | 3.3 | |||
Excessive ≥12 n = 116 | 15.5 | 65.5 | 14.7 | 6.0 | |||
Animal- | Adequate, n = 118 | 31.4 | 39.0 | ≤0.001 | 22.0 | 3.4 | 0.941 |
source | Insufficient, n = 368 | 41.3 | 32.1 | 20.1 | 4.1 | ||
foods | Excessive, n = 44 | 20.5 | 68.2 | 18.2 | 2.3 | ||
Fats and | Adequate, n = 151 | 33.1 | 43.0 | 0.275 | 17.9 | 3.3 | 0.795 |
oils | Insufficient, n = 361 | 39.1 | 33.5 | 21.1 | 3.9 | ||
Excessive, n = 18 | 38.9 | 44.4 | 27.8 | 5.6 | |||
Milk and | Adequate, n = 171 | 38.6 | 40.9 | 0.270 | 20.5 | 3.5 | 0.822 |
yogurt | Insufficient, n = 257 | 38.1 | 33.5 | 20.2 | 4.7 | ||
Excessive, n = 102 | 33.5 | 37.3 | 20.6 | 2.0 | |||
Sugar table | Adequate, n = 226 | 39.8 | 33.6 | 0.442 | 18.6 | 4.0 | 0.671 |
Excessive, n = 304 | 35.5 | 38.8 | 21.7 | 3.6 | |||
Sugar-sweetened | Adequate, n = 171 | 33.3 | 33.3 | 0.030 | 14.6 | 4.7 | 0.066 |
beverage | Excessive, n = 359 | 39.3 | 38.2 | 23.1 | 3.3 | ||
Number of | ≥4, n = 106 | 29.2 | 40.6 | 0.151 | 18.9 | 2.8 | 0.754 |
food groups | ≤3, n = 424 | 39.4 | 35.6 | 20.8 | 4.0 |
Nutrient Intake | Gestational Weight Gain (%) | Birth Weight (%) | p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Insufficient, n = 205 | Excessive, n = 187 | p-Value | SGA, n = 108 | LGA, n = 20 | ||
Adequacy energy | ||||||
Adequate (80–120%) n = 248 | 35.9 | 38.3 | 0.577 | 18.5 | 3.6 | 0.736 |
Low (<80%), n = 147 | 37.4 | 32.7 | 19.7 | 4.1 | ||
Excessive (>120), n = 135 | 40.7 | 37.8 | 24.4 | 3.7 | ||
Carbohydrates | ||||||
Adequate (45–55%),n = 226 | 36.7 | 37.2 | 0.727 | 19.0 | 4.9 | 0.698 |
Low (<45%), n = 91 | 31.9 | 39.6 | 18.7 | 3.3 | ||
Excessive (>55), n = 213 | 40.4 | 34.7 | 22.5 | 2.8 | ||
Lipids | ||||||
Adequate (25–30%), n = 253 | 38.3 | 36.4 | 0.590 | 24.1 | 4.0 | 0.245 |
Low (<25%), n = 125 | 41.6 | 33.6 | 18.4 | 2.4 | ||
Excessive (>30%), n = 152 | 32.2 | 39.5 | 15.8 | 4.6 | ||
Proteins | ||||||
Adequate (15–20%), n = 227 | 38.3 | 35.2 | 0.881 | 24.2 | 3.5 | 0.379 |
Low (<15%), n = 225 | 35.6 | 39.1 | 17.3 | 4.4 | ||
Excessive (>21%), n = 78 | 39.7 | 33.3 | 17.9 | 2.6 |
Eating Habits | Gestational Weight Gain (%) | Birth Weight (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Insufficient, n = 205 | Excessive, n = 187 | p-Value | SGA, n = 108 | LGA, n = 20 | p-Value | |
Number of meals | ||||||
≥3, n = 121 | 35.5 | 34.7 | 0.695 | 23.1 | 3.3 | 0.855 |
3, n = 300 | 38.7 | 35.7 | 20.3 | 3.7 | ||
≤2, n = 109 | 35.8 | 41.3 | 17.4 | 4.6 | ||
Having breakfast | ||||||
Yes, n = 505 | 36.6 | 36.8 | 0.263 | 19.6 | 4.0 | 0.099 |
No, n = 25 | 52 | 32.0 | 36.0 | 0.0 | ||
Having lunch | ||||||
Yes, n = 524 | 37.8 | 36.6 | 0.047 | 20.6 | 3.8 | 0.381 |
No, n = 6 | 0.0 | 33.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | ||
Having dinner-super | ||||||
Yes, n = 467 | 36.8 | 37.3 | 0.591 | 21.2 | 3.9 | 0.408 |
No, n = 63 | 42.9 | 31.7 | 14.3 | 3.2 | ||
Skipping meals | ||||||
Never, n = 245 | 36.3 | 37.6 | 0.157 | 20.8 | 3.3 | 0.819 |
1–3 times/week, n = 222 | 40.1 | 32.0 | 21.2 | 4.5 | ||
4–5 times/week, n = 63 | 31.7 | 49.2 | 15.9 | 3.2 | ||
Eating out of home | ||||||
Yes, n = 73 | 32.9 | 34.2 | 0.349 | 20.6 | 3.7 | 0.954 |
No, n = 457 | 38.1 | 37.0 | 19.2 | 4.1 | ||
Eating alone | ||||||
Yes, n = 107 | 35.5 | 43.0 | 0.262 | 19.6 | 5.6 | 0.535 |
No, n = 423 | 37.0 | 35.0 | 20.6 | 3.3 | ||
Activities during the meals | ||||||
None, n = 205 | 36.6 | 34.6 | 0.793 | 22.4 | 1.5 | 0.190 |
Watching TV or using a cellphone, n = 270 | 37.4 | 38.5 | 18.5 | 5.6 | ||
Doing household chores, n = 55 | 40.0 | 34.5 | 21.8 | 3.6 | ||
Modify their feeding | ||||||
Was better, n = 353 | 36.3 | 36.5 | 0.544 | 19.8 | 3.4 | 0.644 |
Was worse, n = 103 | 38.8 | 40.8 | 23.3 | 5.8 | ||
No change, n = 74 | 40.5 | 31.1 | 18.9 | 5.8 |
Gestational Weight Gain | Birth Weight | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Insufficient | Excessive | SGA | LGA | |||||
PR | 95% CI | PR | 95% CI | PR | 95% CI | PR | 95% CI | |
Legumes | ||||||||
M1 | 1.16 | 0.75–1.79 | 1.89 | 1.03–3.47 | – | – | – | – |
M2 | 0.80 | 0.51–1.28 | 1.95 | 1.05–3.60 | – | – | – | – |
M3 | 0.82 | 0.52–1.28 | 1.86 | 1.00–3.44 | – | – | – | – |
Cereal and grains | ||||||||
<7 servings | ||||||||
M1 | 1.59 | 1.17–2.14 | 0.55 | 0.38–0.80 | – | – | – | – |
M2 | 1.61 | 1.19–2.18 | 0.55 | 0.38–0.80 | – | – | – | – |
M3 | 1.56 | 1.14–2.12 | 0.57 | 0.39–0.83 | – | – | – | – |
>12 Excessive | ||||||||
M1 | 0.46 | 0.28–0.78 | 1.77 | 1.29–2.44 | – | – | – | – |
M2 | 0.47 | 0.28–0.79 | 1.77 | 1.29–2.44 | – | – | – | – |
M3 | 0.49 | 0.29–0.82 | 1.65 | 1.18–2.29 | – | – | – | – |
Animal–source foods | ||||||||
Insufficient | ||||||||
M1 | 1.32 | 0.92–1.89 | 0.82 | 0.59–1.16 | – | – | – | – |
M2 | 1.35 | 0.94–1.94 | 0.81 | 0.57–1.14 | – | – | – | – |
M3 | 1.43 | 0.99–2.05 | 0.72 | 0.51–1.02 | – | – | – | – |
Excessive | ||||||||
M1 | 0.65 | 0.32–1.35 | 1.75 | 1.04–2.77 | – | – | – | – |
M2 | 0.70 | 0.34–1.46 | 1.65 | 1.03–2.65 | – | – | – | – |
M3 | 0.80 | 0.38–1.68 | 1.33 | 0.82–2.17 | – | – | – | – |
Consume sweetened beverages | ||||||||
M1 | 1.18 | 0.87–1.60 | 1.15 | 0.84–1.56 | 1.58 | 1.01–2.47 | 0.71 | 0.29–1.75 |
M2 | 1.16 | 0.85–1.59 | 1.14 | 0.84–1.56 | 1.58 | 1.00–2.47 | 0.77 | 0.31–1.94 |
M3 | 1.19 | 0.87–1.62 | 1.14 | 0.84–1.56 | 1.58 | 1.01–2.49 | 0.78 | 0.31–1.98 |
≤3 Food groups | ||||||||
M1 | 1.40 | 0.95–2.07 | 0.88 | 0.63–1.23 | – | – | – | – |
M2 | 1.31 | 0.89–1.93 | 0.90 | 0.64–1.27 | – | – | – | – |
M3 | 1.34 | 0.91–1.98 | 0.86 | 0.61–1.21 | – | – | – | – |
Lipids | Gestational Gain, % | Birth Weight | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Insufficient | Excessive | Small | Large | |||||
PR | 95% CI | PR | 95% CI | PR | 95% CI | PR | 95% CI | |
Adequate REF | ||||||||
Insufficient | ||||||||
M1 | – | – | – | – | 0.70 | 0.46–1.08 | 0.55 | 0.14–2.21 |
M2 | – | – | – | – | 0.74 | 0.43–1.26 | 0.35 | 0.08–1.48 |
M3 | – | – | – | – | 0.74 | 0.44–1.27 | 0.35 | 0.08–1.52 |
Excessive | ||||||||
M1 | – | – | – | – | 0.71 | 0.42–1.20 | 0.95 | 0.35–2.56 |
M2 | – | – | – | – | 0.73 | 0.47–1.26 | 0.86 | 0.31–1.49 |
M3 | – | – | – | – | 0.75 | 0.49–1.27 | 0.85 | 0.31–2.34 |
Skipping meals | ||||||||
None REF | ||||||||
1–3 time/week | ||||||||
M1 | 1.10 * | 0.82–1.48 | 0.85 | 0.63–1.16 | – | – | – | – |
M2 | 1.14 | 0.85–1.53 | 0.85 | 0.62–1.16 | – | – | – | – |
M3 | 1.15 | 0.85–1.54 | 0.82 | 0.60–1.12 | – | – | – | – |
4–5 time/week | ||||||||
M1 | 0.87 | 0.54–1.42 | 1.31 | 0.87–1.97 | – | – | – | – |
M2 | 0.87 | 0.54–1.42 | 1.30 | 0.87–1.97 | – | – | – | – |
M3 | 0.92 | 0.57–1.51 | 1.17 | 0.77–1.77 | – | – | – | – |
Number of meals | ||||||||
>3 REF | ||||||||
3 | ||||||||
M1 | 1.01 | 0.69–1.47 | 1.09 | 0.73–1.62 | – | – | – | – |
M2 | 1.03 | 0.70–1.52 | 1.12 | 0.75–1.69 | – | – | – | – |
M3 | 1.03 | 0.70–1.52 | 1.08 | 0.72–1.64 | – | – | – | – |
<2 | ||||||||
M1 | 1.01 | 0.66–1.54 | 1.22 | 0.79–1.88 | – | – | – | – |
M2 | 1.04 | 0.68–1.59 | 1.23 | 0.80–1.90 | – | – | – | – |
M3 | 1.08 | 0.70–1.65 | 1.09 | 0.70–1.70 | – | – | – | – |
Activities during the meals | ||||||||
Seeing TV | ||||||||
M1 | – | – | – | – | 0.83 | 0.55–1.23 | 3.80 | 1.10–13.11 |
M2 | – | – | – | – | 0.84 | 0.56–1.26 | 3.92 | 1.11–13.84 |
M3 | – | – | – | – | 0.87 | 0.58–1.30 | 3.76 | 1.06–13.36 |
Doing household chores | ||||||||
M1 | – | – | – | – | 0.97 | 0.52–1.84 | 2.49 | 0.42–14.87 |
M2 | – | – | – | – | 0.98 | 0.52–1.87 | 2.67 | 0.44–16.45 |
M3 | – | – | – | – | 0.98 | 0.52–1.86 | 2.89 | 0.46–18.07 |
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Sámano, R.; Martínez-Rojano, H.; Ortiz-Hernández, L.; Nájera-Medina, O.; Chico-Barba, G.; Godínez-Martínez, E.; Gamboa, R.; Aguirre-Minutti, E. Dietary and Nutrient Intake, Eating Habits, and Its Association with Maternal Gestational Weight Gain and Offspring’s Birth Weight in Pregnant Adolescents. Nutrients 2022, 14, 4545. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14214545
Sámano R, Martínez-Rojano H, Ortiz-Hernández L, Nájera-Medina O, Chico-Barba G, Godínez-Martínez E, Gamboa R, Aguirre-Minutti E. Dietary and Nutrient Intake, Eating Habits, and Its Association with Maternal Gestational Weight Gain and Offspring’s Birth Weight in Pregnant Adolescents. Nutrients. 2022; 14(21):4545. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14214545
Chicago/Turabian StyleSámano, Reyna, Hugo Martínez-Rojano, Luis Ortiz-Hernández, Oralia Nájera-Medina, Gabriela Chico-Barba, Estela Godínez-Martínez, Ricardo Gamboa, and Estefanía Aguirre-Minutti. 2022. "Dietary and Nutrient Intake, Eating Habits, and Its Association with Maternal Gestational Weight Gain and Offspring’s Birth Weight in Pregnant Adolescents" Nutrients 14, no. 21: 4545. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14214545
APA StyleSámano, R., Martínez-Rojano, H., Ortiz-Hernández, L., Nájera-Medina, O., Chico-Barba, G., Godínez-Martínez, E., Gamboa, R., & Aguirre-Minutti, E. (2022). Dietary and Nutrient Intake, Eating Habits, and Its Association with Maternal Gestational Weight Gain and Offspring’s Birth Weight in Pregnant Adolescents. Nutrients, 14(21), 4545. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14214545