Age-Specific Differences in Online Grocery Shopping Behaviors and Attitudes among Adults with Low Income in the United States in 2021
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Outcomes
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mean (SD) or n (%) | |
---|---|
Age | 46.8 (15.9) |
Female | 1808 (51.3%) |
Household size, total | 2.3 (1.0) |
Household size, children <18 years | 1.4 (0.7) |
Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish | 352 (10.0%) |
Race | |
American Indian or Alaska Native | 51 (1.4%) |
Asian | 52 (1.5%) |
Black or African American | 523 (14.8%) |
Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander | 12 (0.3%) |
White | 2652 (75.2%) |
Other | 90 (2.6%) |
More than 1 | 17 (0.5%) |
Prefer not to answer | 129 (3.7%) |
Education | |
Less than 9th grade | 35 (1.0%) |
9th to 12th grade–No diploma | 206 (5.8%) |
High school graduate | 1004 (28.5%) |
GED or equivalent | 235 (6.7%) |
Some college, no degree | 1077 (30.5%) |
Associate’s degree | 439 (12.5%) |
Bachelor’s degree | 386 (10.9%) |
Graduate or professional degree | 140 (4.0%) |
Prefer not to answer | 4 (0.1%) |
Income | |
<USD 20,000 | 1546 (43.8%) |
USD 20,000–39,999 | 1295 (36.7%) |
USD 40,000–59,999 | 435 (12.3%) |
USD 60,000–USD 79,999 | 138 (3.9%) |
USD 80,000–USD 99,999 | 47 (1.3%) |
USD 100,000–119,999 | 9 (0.3%) |
USD 120,000 to USD 139,999 | 3 (0.1%) |
USD 140,000 to USD 159,999 | 8 (0.2%) |
USD 160,000 to USD 179,999 | 3 (0.1%) |
USD 180,000 to USD 199,999 | 3 (0.1%) |
≥USD 200,000 | 8 (0.2%) |
Don’t know | 16 (0.5%) |
Prefer not to answer | 15 (0.4%) |
Marital status | |
Married | 770 (21.8%) |
Widowed | 236 (6.7%) |
Divorced | 613 (17.4%) |
Separated | 154 (4.4%) |
Never married | 1185 (33.6%) |
Living with partner | 550 (15.6%) |
Prefer not to answer | 18 (0.5%) |
Employment | |
Working at a job or business | 1086 (30.8%) |
With a job or business but not at work | 94 (2.7%) |
Looking for work | 631 (17.9%) |
Not working at a job or business | 1435 (40.7%) |
Part-time or full-time student | 135 (3.8%) |
Prefer not to answer | 145 (4.1%) |
Food insecure b | 2479 (70.3%) |
SNAP participation, currently | 2364 (67.0%) |
BRFSS 2017 screener, times per week | |
Fruit juice | 2.7 (4.2) |
Fruit | 3.8 (4.6) |
Beans | 2.0 (3.1) |
Dark green vegetables | 2.8 (3.6) |
Orange-colored vegetables | 2.1 (3.5) |
Other vegetables | 3.4 (3.9) |
Total | 16.7 (16.8) |
Responsible for most of household food shopping | |
Yes | 2999 (85.1%) |
No | 282 (8.0%) |
No one person is responsible | 245 (6.9%) |
Responsible for most of household food preparation | |
Yes | 2840 (80.5%) |
No | 453 (12.8%) |
No one person is responsible | 233 (6.6%) |
All (n = 3526) | 18–33 Years (n = 857) | 34–44 Years (n = 892) | 45–59 Years (n = 889) | 60+ Years (n = 888) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | |
Online grocery, frequency | |||||
Never | 1621 (46.0%) | 275 (32.1%) | 373 (41.8%) | 478 (53.8%) | 495 (55.7%) |
1 time per month or less | 883 (25.0%) | 247 (28.8%) | 240 (26.9%) | 203 (22.8%) | 193 (21.7%) |
2–3 times per month | 684 (19.4%) | 214 (25.0%) | 188 (21.1%) | 145 (16.3%) | 137 (15.4%) |
1 time per week | 217 (6.2%) | 73 (8.5%) | 55 (6.2%) | 45 (5.1%) | 44 (5.0%) |
More than 1 time per week | 121 (3.4%) | 48 (5.6%) | 36 (4.0%) | 18 (2.0%) | 19 (2.1%) |
Online grocery, retailer c | |||||
Amazon | 668 (35.1%) | 229 (39.3%) | 165 (31.8%) | 157 (38.2%) | 117 (29.8%) |
Walmart | 1342 (70.4%) | 436 (74.9%) | 388 (74.8%) | 269 (65.5%) | 249 (63.4%) |
Target | 275 (14.4%) | 147 (25.3%) | 70 (13.5%) | 34 (8.3%) | 24 (6.1%) |
Costco | 143 (7.5%) | 69 (11.9%) | 32 (6.2%) | 25 (6.1%) | 17 (4.3%) |
Kroger | 333 (17.5%) | 115 (19.8%) | 92 (17.7%) | 66 (16.1%) | 60 (15.3%) |
Whole Foods | 147 (7.7%) | 69 (11.9%) | 40 (7.7%) | 19 (4.6%) | 19 (4.8%) |
Aldi | 303 (15.9%) | 106 (18.2%) | 74 (14.3%) | 55 (13.4%) | 68 (17.3%) |
Publix | 175 (9.2%) | 66 (11.3%) | 43 (8.3%) | 31 (7.5%) | 35 (8.9%) |
Peapod | 28 (1.5%) | 11 (1.9%) | 8 (1.5%) | 3 (0.7%) | 6 (1.5%) |
Albertsons/Safeway | 114 (6.0%) | 31 (5.3%) | 46 (8.9%) | 22 (5.4%) | 15 (3.8%) |
FreshDirect | 29 (1.5%) | 16 (2.7%) | 8 (1.5%) | 5 (1.2%) | 0 (0.0%) |
Other | 297 (15.6%) | 51 (8.8%) | 71 (13.7%) | 70 (17.0%) | 105 (26.7%) |
Online grocery, delivery location | |||||
Home | 940 (49.3%) | 246 (42.3%) | 252 (48.6%) | 219 (53.3%) | 223 (56.7%) |
Physical store location | 568 (29.8%) | 180 (30.9%) | 164 (31.6%) | 119 (29.0%) | 105 (26.7%) |
Both home and physical store location | 397 (20.8%) | 156 (26.8%) | 103 (19.8%) | 73 (17.8%) | 65 (16.5%) |
Online grocery, type of groceries ordered c | |||||
Fresh produce | 357 (18.7%) | 117 (20.1%) | 62 (12.0%) | 112 (27.2%) | 66 (16.8%) |
Canned produce | 330 (17.3%) | 107 (18.4%) | 60 (11.6%) | 101 (24.5%) | 62 (15.8%) |
Frozen produce | 334 (17.5%) | 104 (17.9%) | 64 (12.4%) | 101 (24.5%) | 65 (16.5%) |
Dairy products | 331 (17.4%) | 101 (17.4%) | 65 (12.6%) | 100 (24.2%) | 65 (16.5%) |
Soda or other sweetened drinks | 326 (17.1%) | 102 (17.5%) | 63 (12.2%) | 98 (23.8%) | 63 (16.0%) |
Bottled water | 310 (16.3%) | 107 (18.4%) | 54 (10.4%) | 98 (23.8%) | 51 (13.0%) |
Other beverages | 208 (10.9%) | 53 (9.1%) | 41 (7.9%) | 75 (18.2%) | 39 (9.9%) |
Bread, rice, or other types of grains | 212 (11.1%) | 50 (8.6%) | 47 (9.1%) | 76 (18.4%) | 39 (9.9%) |
Meat, poultry, or fish (fresh or frozen) | 221 (11.6%) | 47 (8.1%) | 54 (10.4%) | 69 (16.7%) | 51 (13.0%) |
Other frozen food | 230 (12.1%) | 49 (8.4%) | 58 (11.2%) | 66 (16.0%) | 57 (14.5%) |
Other canned food | 319 (16.7%) | 83 (14.3%) | 72 (13.9%) | 91 (22.1%) | 73 (18.6%) |
Desserts, snacks, or candy | 335 (17.6%) | 86 (14.8%) | 76 (14.7%) | 100 (24.2%) | 73 (18.6%) |
Other | 142 (7.5%) | 18 (3.1%) | 41 (7.9%) | 26 (6.3%) | 57 (14.5%) |
Online grocery, motivating factors c | |||||
Low prices | 1083 (56.9%) | 367 (63.1%) | 313 (60.3%) | 225 (54.7%) | 178 (45.3%) |
Variety of goods | 743 (39.0%) | 235 (40.4%) | 190 (36.6%) | 176 (42.8%) | 142 (36.1%) |
Good quality food | 606 (31.8%) | 210 (36.1%) | 174 (33.5%) | 119 (29.0%) | 103 (26.2%) |
Good produce selection | 692 (36.3%) | 179 (30.8%) | 179 (34.5%) | 168 (40.9%) | 166 (42.2%) |
Online convenience | 28 (1.5%) | 15 (2.6%) | 9 (1.7%) | 2 (0.5%) | 2 (0.5%) |
Having someone else select grocery items on my behalf | 779 (40.9%) | 224 (38.5%) | 229 (44.1%) | 189 (46.0%) | 137 (34.9%) |
Option for using SNAP benefits for online purchases | 301 (15.8%) | 108 (18.6%) | 85 (16.4%) | 56 (13.6%) | 52 (13.2%) |
Loyalty/frequent shopping program | 661 (34.7%) | 163 (28.0%) | 177 (34.1%) | 171 (41.6%) | 150 (38.2%) |
Inexpensive or no delivery fee | 758 (39.8%) | 202 (34.7%) | 198 (38.2%) | 192 (46.7%) | 166 (42.2%) |
Convenient pick-up or delivery options | 103 (5.4%) | 14 (2.4%) | 16 (3.1%) | 27 (6.6%) | 46 (11.7%) |
Other language options | 190 (10.0%) | 60 (10.3%) | 54 (10.4%) | 36 (8.8%) | 40 (10.2%) |
Other | 800 (42.0%) | 267 (45.9%) | 220 (42.4%) | 157 (38.2%) | 156 (39.7%) |
Online grocery, preventing or discouraging factors c | |||||
High prices | 472 (29.1%) | 94 (16.2%) | 110 (21.2%) | 145 (35.3%) | 123 (31.3%) |
Lack of variety of goods | 166 (10.2%) | 43 (7.4%) | 37 (7.1%) | 42 (10.2%) | 44 (11.2%) |
Poor quality food | 148 (9.1%) | 35 (6.0%) | 35 (6.7%) | 37 (9.0%) | 41 (10.4%) |
Poor produce selection | 135 (8.3%) | 23 (4.0%) | 32 (6.2%) | 39 (9.5%) | 41 (10.4%) |
Lack of social interaction | 1040 (64.2%) | 138 (23.7%) | 202 (38.9%) | 325 (79.1%) | 375 (95.4%) |
Not being able to touch and pick out the food itself | 430 (26.5%) | 79 (13.6%) | 102 (19.7%) | 130 (31.6%) | 119 (30.3%) |
No option for using SNAP benefits for online purchases | 87 (5.4%) | 16 (2.7%) | 17 (3.3%) | 31 (7.5%) | 23 (5.9%) |
No loyalty/frequent shopping program | 455 (28.1%) | 86 (14.8%) | 122 (23.5%) | 121 (29.4%) | 126 (32.1%) |
High delivery fees | 252 (15.5%) | 49 (8.4%) | 68 (13.1%) | 63 (15.3%) | 72 (18.3%) |
Not being home for delivery and/or deliveries being stolen | 9 (0.6%) | 2 (0.3%) | 2 (0.4%) | 4 (1.0%) | 1 (0.3%) |
Other language options | 142 (8.8%) | 24 (4.1%) | 45 (8.7%) | 30 (7.3%) | 43 (10.9%) |
Other | 176 (10.9%) | 36 (6.2%) | 34 (6.6%) | 50 (12.2%) | 56 (14.2%) |
OR (95% CI) | |
---|---|
Age group, y | |
18–20 | 1.95 (1.52, 2.52) |
21–44 | 1.50 (1.19, 1.90) |
45–64 | 1.05 (0.85, 1.29) |
≥65 | - |
Female | 0.92 (0.79, 1.07) |
Household size, all | 0.91 (0.82, 1.00) |
Household size, children | 1.24 (1.07, 1.43) |
Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish | 1.63 (1.21, 2.19) |
Race | |
White | - |
Black | 1.52 (1.22, 1.89) |
American Indian or Alaska Native | 0.63 (0.34, 1.18) |
Asian, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander | 1.41 (0.79, 2.50) |
Other | 0.750.451.25 |
Education, high school or less | 0.83 (0.71, 0.97) |
Household annual income, <USD 20,000 | 0.81 (0.68, 0.96) |
Marital status, married | 1.24 (1.02, 1.50) |
Employment status, employed | 1.43 (1.20, 1.69) |
SNAP, current participant | 1.08 (0.91, 1.27) |
Food insecure | 1.42 (1.20, 1.67) |
Responsible for most of food shopping | 1.32 (1.03, 1.70) |
Responsible for most of food preparation | 1.27 (1.01, 1.60) |
Fruit and vegetable intake, weekly (mean (SD)) | |
Q1 (3.7 (SD = 2.3)) | - |
Q2 (10.0 (SD = 1.6)) | 1.35 (1.10, 1.65) |
Q3 (16.5 (SD = 2.3)) | 1.54 (1.25, 1.90) |
Q4 (37.3 (SD = 21.6)) | 1.97 (1.60, 2.43) |
18–33 Years (n = 857) | 34–44 Years (n = 892) | 45–59 Years (n = 889) | 60+ Years (n = 888) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | |
Online grocery, ever in previous 12 months | 1.95 (1.52, 2.52) | 1.50 (1.19, 1.90) | 1.05 (0.85, 1.29) | Referent |
Online grocery, retailer b | ||||
Amazon | 1.68 (1.22, 2.31) | 1.16 (0.85, 1.59) | 1.30 (0.97, 1.73) | Referent |
Walmart | 1.86 (1.44, 2.41) | 1.61 (1.26, 2.05) | 1.03 (0.82, 1.30) | Referent |
Target | 4.26 (2.42, 7.47) | 1.96 (1.10, 3.48) | 1.24 (0.68, 2.26) | Referent |
Costco | 1.76 (0.87, 3.54) | 0.95 (0.46, 1.95) | 1.07 (0.53, 2.16) | Referent |
Kroger | 1.73 (1.13, 2.65) | 1.31 (0.87, 1.98) | 1.07 (0.72, 1.61) | Referent |
Whole Foods | 2.55 (1.32, 4.95) | 1.51 (0.78, 2.94) | 0.87 (0.43, 1.76) | Referent |
Aldi | 1.41 (0.93, 2.14) | 0.96 (0.63, 1.45) | 0.71 (0.47, 1.07) | Referent |
Publix | 1.34 (0.77, 2.33) | 0.97 (0.56, 1.68) | 0.75 (0.44, 1.30) | Referent |
Peapod c | - | - | - | Referent |
Albertsons/Safeway | 1.99 (0.87, 4.51) | 2.62 (1.22, 5.61) | 1.68 (0.78, 3.63) | Referent |
FreshDirect c | - | - | - | Referent |
Online grocery, delivery location | ||||
Home | 0.64 (0.45, 0.90) | 0.88 (0.63, 1.22) | 0.92 (0.67, 1.27) | Referent |
Physical store location | 1.22 (0.83, 1.77) | 1.25 (0.87, 1.80) | 1.08 (0.76, 1.53) | Referent |
Both home and physical store location | 1.53 (0.99, 2.36) | 0.94 (0.61, 1.46) | 1.05 (0.69, 1.60) | Referent |
Online grocery, type of groceries ordered b | ||||
Fresh produce | 1.68 (1.11, 2.54) | 1.57 (1.06, 2.33) | 0.87 (0.58, 1.30) | Referent |
Canned produce | 1.63 (1.06, 2.50) | 1.52 (1.01, 2.27) | 0.87 (0.58, 1.31) | Referent |
Frozen produce | 1.48 (0.97, 2.26) | 1.43 (0.96, 2.12) | 0.89 (0.59, 1.32) | Referent |
Dairy products | 1.45 (0.95, 2.21) | 1.43 (0.96, 2.14) | 0.90 (0.61, 1.35) | Referent |
Soda or other sweetened drinks | 1.59 (1.04, 2.44) | 1.51 (1.01, 2.26) | 0.94 (0.62, 1.40) | Referent |
Bottled water | 2.07 (1.33, 3.22) | 1.78 (1.17, 2.72) | 0.91 (0.59, 1.42) | Referent |
Other beverages | 1.14 (0.66, 1.95) | 1.67 (1.03, 2.72) | 1.00 (0.62, 1.64) | Referent |
Bread, rice, or other types of grains | 1.09 (0.64, 1.88) | 1.71 (1.05, 2.78) | 1.18 (0.74, 1.90) | Referent |
Meat, poultry, or fish (fresh or frozen) | 0.84 (0.49, 1.43) | 1.26 (0.79, 2.01) | 1.10 (0.71, 1.70) | Referent |
Other frozen food | 0.76 (0.45, 1.27) | 0.97 (0.61, 1.54) | 1.01 (0.66, 1.53) | Referent |
Other canned food | 1.10 (0.72, 1.69) | 1.13 (0.75, 1.68) | 0.98 (0.67, 1.44) | Referent |
Desserts, snacks, or candy | 0.99 (0.65, 1.51) | 1.20 (0.82, 1.76) | 0.94 (0.65, 1.36) | Referent |
Online grocery, motivating factors b | ||||
Low prices | 2.34 (1.78, 3.08) | 1.84 (1.42, 2.39) | 1.28 (1.00, 1.65) | Referent |
Variety of goods | 1.73 (1.28, 2.34) | 1.37 (1.02, 1.83) | 1.29 (0.98, 1.69) | Referent |
Good quality food | 1.90 (1.36, 2.64) | 1.55 (1.13, 2.13) | 1.12 (0.82, 1.53) | Referent |
Good produce selection | 1.06 (0.78, 1.43) | 1.07 (0.81, 1.42) | 1.02 (0.78, 1.32) | Referent |
Online convenience c | - | - | - | Referent |
Having someone else select grocery items on my behalf | 1.63 (1.19, 2.25) | 1.71 (1.27, 2.31) | 1.32 (0.99, 1.75) | Referent |
Option for using SNAP benefits for online purchases | 1.67 (1.07, 2.60) | 1.42 (0.92, 2.19) | 1.05 (0.68, 1.60) | Referent |
Loyalty/frequent shopping program | 0.90 (0.65, 1.23) | 1.04 (0.77, 1.40) | 1.09 (0.83, 1.43) | Referent |
Inexpensive or no delivery fee | 1.12 (0.83, 1.52) | 1.13 (0.85, 1.49) | 1.21 (0.93, 1.56) | Referent |
Convenient pick-up or delivery options | 0.51 (0.23, 1.15) | 0.76 (0.39, 1.48) | 0.83 (0.48, 1.42) | Referent |
Other language options | 1.27 (0.74, 2.18) | 1.20 (0.72, 2.01) | 0.80 (0.48, 1.34) | Referent |
Online grocery, preventing or discouraging factors b | ||||
High prices | 0.84 (0.59, 1.21) | 0.88 (0.63, 1.23) | 1.18 (0.88, 1.57) | Referent |
Lack of variety of goods | 1.06 (0.61, 1.84) | 0.79 (0.46, 1.35) | 0.85 (0.52, 1.37) | Referent |
Poor quality food | 0.61 (0.34, 1.11) | 0.59 (0.34, 1.03) | 0.76 (0.46, 1.26) | Referent |
Poor produce selection | 0.76 (0.39, 1.49) | 0.76 (0.41, 1.40) | 1.13 (0.68, 1.88) | Referent |
Lack of social interaction | 0.34 (0.25, 0.45) | 0.45 (0.35, 0.58) | 0.83 (0.67, 1.03) | Referent |
Not being able to touch and pick out the food itself | 0.76 (0.52, 1.12) | 0.80 (0.56, 1.14) | 1.06 (0.78, 1.43) | Referent |
No option for using SNAP benefits for online purchases | 1.02 (0.45, 2.34) | 0.81 (0.36, 1.79) | 1.49 (0.79, 2.82) | Referent |
No loyalty/frequent shopping program | 0.90 (0.62, 1.30) | 1.07 (0.77, 1.49) | 1.04 (0.77, 1.40) | Referent |
High delivery fees | 0.87 (0.55, 1.40) | 1.04 (0.68, 1.59) | 0.90 (0.60, 1.33) | Referent |
Not being home for delivery and/or deliveries being stolenc | - | - | - | Referent |
Other language options | 0.85 (0.45, 1.60) | 1.42 (0.84, 2.40) | 0.71 (0.42, 1.22) | Referent |
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Rummo, P.E.; Roberto, C.A.; Thorpe, L.E.; Troxel, A.B.; Elbel, B. Age-Specific Differences in Online Grocery Shopping Behaviors and Attitudes among Adults with Low Income in the United States in 2021. Nutrients 2022, 14, 4427. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14204427
Rummo PE, Roberto CA, Thorpe LE, Troxel AB, Elbel B. Age-Specific Differences in Online Grocery Shopping Behaviors and Attitudes among Adults with Low Income in the United States in 2021. Nutrients. 2022; 14(20):4427. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14204427
Chicago/Turabian StyleRummo, Pasquale E., Christina A. Roberto, Lorna E. Thorpe, Andrea B. Troxel, and Brian Elbel. 2022. "Age-Specific Differences in Online Grocery Shopping Behaviors and Attitudes among Adults with Low Income in the United States in 2021" Nutrients 14, no. 20: 4427. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14204427