Food Outlet Access and the Healthiness of Food Available ‘On-Demand’ via Meal Delivery Apps in New Zealand
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Selection of Study Area
2.2. Address Sampling
- The feature layer 2018 Census Individual (part 1) total New Zealand by Statistical Area 1 [27] containing geography and census ethnicity data. SA1 is the smallest publicly available, aggregated geographical data output from the New Zealand census.
- The table ‘Statistical Area 1 Higher Geographies 2018’ [28], which contains rural and urban classifications for each SA1, including labelling of Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch.
- NZDep, the standard New Zealand Socioeconomic Deprivation Index by SA1 [29].
- Previously compiled locations of ‘dairy and convenience stores’, ‘fast food’ and ‘takeaways’ from the University of Canterbury GeoHealth Laboratory were combined and added as a feature layer of physical outlets providing a preponderance of unhealthy foods [15].
- Locations of New Zealand street addresses from Toitū Te Whenua Land Information New Zealand (LINZ) [30].
- SA1s were filtered to those of ‘Auckland’, ‘Wellington’ or ‘Christchurch’ in the ‘UR2018_V1_00_NAME’ field of the SA1 higher geographies table.
- SA1s were classified into tertiles of physical access to unhealthy foods. This was done by counting the number of unhealthy outlets within an 800 m buffer of the centroid of each SA1.
- SA1s were classified by NZDep tertile within their respective cities according to their associated NZDep score.
- SA1s were classified into those with a higher proportion of Māori (defined as having a proportion of Māori population in the top quintile among SA1s in each city) or not.
2.3. Selection of Meal Delivery Apps (MDAs)
2.4. Data Collection—Website Scraping
- Clear all browsing data and reset the test browser to ensure that any previous searches do not influence future results;
- Search the address of interest;
- Set time for delivery (if supported by the site; searches were performed as close to the time of interest as possible);
- Select each of the first 10 food outlets shown;
- For each food outlet, select the first 10 items;
- Record the item name and description for each item.
2.5. Classification of Food Items
2.6. Machine Learning for Classification of Full Dataset
2.7. Counting Open Outlets
2.8. Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Items by Score, n (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unhealthy −2 | −1 | 0 | 1 | Healthy 2 | Total | |
Uber Eats | 2361 (31.7) | 2277 (30.5) | 1114 (14.9) | 1568 (21.0) | 138 (1.9) | 7458 (100.0) |
Menulog | 2197 (27.2) | 2681 (33.2) | 1680 (20.8) | 1340 (16.6) | 178 (2.2) | 8076 (100.0) |
delivereasy | 1609 (30.1) | 1632 (30.6) | 646 (12.1) | 1134 (21.2) | 316 (5.9) | 5337 (100.0) |
Uber Eats | Menulog | Delivereasy | |||||||||||
Tertile (1 = Least Deprived) | Tertile (1 = Least Deprived) | Tertile (1 = Least Deprived) | |||||||||||
1 | 2 | 3 | Overall | 1 | 2 | 3 | Overall | 1 | 2 | 3 | Overall | ||
NZDep 2018 | Outlets | 181 (71.5, 258) | 143 (85.5, 187.5) | 163 (107, 202.5) | 156.5 (87.5, 209.5) | 113 (19, 162) | 75 (18, 149.5) | 101 (14, 146) | 95 (16, 158) | 51 (31, 91.5) | 71.5 (53.5, 93.5) | 48 (31.5, 92.5) | 55 (33.5, 93.5) |
Tertile (1 = Least Dense) | Tertile (1 = Least Dense) | Tertile (1 = Least Dense) | |||||||||||
1 | 2 | 3 | Overall | 1 | 2 | 3 | Overall | 1 | 2 | 3 | Overall | ||
Physical Density | Outlets | 119 (82.5, 190.5) | 126 (76.5, 187) | 185.5 (153.25, 280) | 156.5 (87.5, 209.5) | 76 (13, 119.5) | 82 (10, 142.5) | 148 (21, 170.5) | 95 (16, 158) | 53 (33, 92) | 48 (32, 89) | 56 (41.5, 95) | 55 (33.5, 93.5) |
Higher Proportion Māori | Other | Overall | Higher Proportion Māori | Other | Overall | Higher Proportion Māori | Other | Overall | |||||
Māori Population | Outlets | 119 (85, 182.5) | 170 (102, 270) | 156.5 (87.5, 209.5) | 75 (22, 119) | 105.5 (13.25, 163.75) | 95 (16, 158) | 34 (18, 87) | 55 (44.5, 94) | 55 (33.5, 93.5) |
Uber Eats | Menulog | Delivereasy | |||||||||||
Tertile (1 = Least Deprived) | Tertile (1 = Least Deprived) | Tertile (1 = Least Deprived) | |||||||||||
1 | 2 | 3 | Total | 1 | 2 | 3 | Total | 1 | 2 | 3 | Total | ||
NZDep 2018 | ‘Healthy’ 1 | 543 (21.7) | 607 (24.2) | 556 (22.8) | 1706 (22.9) | 545 (20.2) | 542 (20.2) | 431 (16.0) | 1518 (18.8) | 501 (26.9) | 468 (28.6) | 481 (26.2) | 1450 (27.2) |
‘Unhealthy’ 2 | 1965 (78.3) | 1905 (75.8) | 1882 (77.2) | 5752 (77.1) | 2150 (79.8) | 2143 (79.8) | 2265 (84.0) | 6558 (81.2) | 1362 (73.1) | 1170 (71.4) | 1355 (73.8) | 3887 (72.8) | |
Total Items | 2508 (100) | 2512 (100) | 2438 (100) | 7458 (100) | 2695 (100) | 2685 (100) | 2696 (100) | 8076 (100) | 1863 (100) | 1638 (100) | 1836 (100) | 5337 (100) | |
Chi2 = 4.5033, p-Value = 0.1052 | Chi2 = 20.9341, p-Value < 0.0001 | Chi2 = 2.5747, p-Value = 0.2760 | |||||||||||
Tertile (1 = Least Dense) | Tertile (1 = Least Dense) | Tertile (1 = Least Dense) | |||||||||||
1 | 2 | 3 | Total | 1 | 2 | 3 | Total | 1 | 2 | 3 | Total | ||
Physical Density | ‘Healthy’ | 623 (24.4) | 539 (22.3) | 544 (21.8) | 1706 (22.9) | 490 (18.2) | 462 (17.2) | 566 (21.0) | 1518 (18.8) | 405 (27.1) | 473 (26.9) | 572 (27.4) | 1450 (27.2) |
‘Unhealthy’ | 1928 (75.6) | 1875 (77.7) | 1949 (78.2) | 5752 (77.1) | 2198 (81.8) | 2231 (82.8) | 2129 (79.0) | 6558 (81.2) | 1088 (72.9) | 1283 (73.1) | 1516 (72.6) | 3887 (72.8) | |
Total Items | 2551 (100) | 2414 (100) | 2493 (100) | 7458 (100) | 2688 (100) | 2693 (100) | 2695 (100) | 8076 (100) | 1493 (100) | 1756 (100) | 2088 (100) | 5337 (100) | |
Chi2 = 5.4384, p-Value = 0.0659 | Chi2 = 13.905, p-Value = 0.0010 | Chi2 = 0.9497, p-Value = 0.5409 | |||||||||||
Higher Proportion Māori | Other | Total | Higher Proportion Māori | Other | Total | Higher Proportion Māori | Other | Total | |||||
Māori Population | ‘Healthy’ | 566 (23.1) | 1140 (22.8) | 1706 (22.9) | 448 (16.6) | 1070 (19.9) | 1518 (18.8) | 459 (27.2) | 991 (27.1) | 1450 (27.2) | |||
‘Unhealthy’ | 1888 (76.9) | 3864 (77.2) | 5752 (77.1) | 2250 (83.4) | 4308 (80.1) | 6558 (81.2) | 1227 (72.8) | 2660 (72.9) | 3887 (72.8) | ||||
Total Items | 2454 (100) | 5004 (100) | 7458 (100) | 2698 (100) | 5378 (100) | 8076 (100) | 1686 (100) | 3651 (100) | 5337 (100) | ||||
Chi2 = 0.0745, p-value = 0.7848 | Chi2 = 12.7487, p-value = 0.0004 | Chi2 = 0.0038, p-value = 0.9507 |
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Norriss, D.; Crossin, R.; Curl, A.; Bidwell, S.; Clark, E.; Pocock, T.; Gage, R.; McKerchar, C. Food Outlet Access and the Healthiness of Food Available ‘On-Demand’ via Meal Delivery Apps in New Zealand. Nutrients 2022, 14, 4228. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14204228
Norriss D, Crossin R, Curl A, Bidwell S, Clark E, Pocock T, Gage R, McKerchar C. Food Outlet Access and the Healthiness of Food Available ‘On-Demand’ via Meal Delivery Apps in New Zealand. Nutrients. 2022; 14(20):4228. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14204228
Chicago/Turabian StyleNorriss, Dru, Rose Crossin, Angela Curl, Susan Bidwell, Elinor Clark, Tessa Pocock, Ryan Gage, and Christina McKerchar. 2022. "Food Outlet Access and the Healthiness of Food Available ‘On-Demand’ via Meal Delivery Apps in New Zealand" Nutrients 14, no. 20: 4228. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14204228
APA StyleNorriss, D., Crossin, R., Curl, A., Bidwell, S., Clark, E., Pocock, T., Gage, R., & McKerchar, C. (2022). Food Outlet Access and the Healthiness of Food Available ‘On-Demand’ via Meal Delivery Apps in New Zealand. Nutrients, 14(20), 4228. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14204228