Dietary Intake, Nutritional Adequacy, and Food Sources of Selected Antioxidant Minerals and Vitamins; and Their Relationship with Personal and Family Factors in Spanish Children Aged 1 to <10 Years: Results from the EsNuPI Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Methods
2.2. Dietary Assessment and Data Processing
2.3. Sociodemographic and Anthropometric Data
2.4. Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior
2.5. Evaluation of Plausible Reporting and Misreporting (Under- and Over-Reporting)
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Subjects Characteristics
3.2. Distribution of Total Antioxidant Minerals and Vitamins Intakes, and Adequacy to the Recommendations Set by EFSA
3.2.1. Zinc
3.2.2. Selenium
3.2.3. Vitamin A, Retinol, and Carotenoids
3.2.4. Vitamin C
3.2.5. Vitamin E
3.3. Association between Usual Intakes of Antioxidant Minerals and Vitamins with Personal and Family Factors
3.4. Food Groups Contributing to Antioxidant Minerals and Vitamins Intakes
3.4.1. Zinc
3.4.2. Selenium
3.4.3. Vitamin A
3.4.4. Retinol
3.4.5. Carotenoids
3.4.6. Vitamin C
3.4.7. Vitamin E
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reference Group (REF) | Fortified Milk Consumers (FMCs) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | Boys | Girls | Total | Boys | Girls | ||
n = 707 | n = 357 | n = 350 | n = 741 | n = 371 | n = 370 | ||
Age, mean ± SD (years) | 1 to <3 years | 1.52 ± 0.50 | 1.60 ± 0.49 | 1.44 ± 0.50 | 1.46 ± 0.50 | 1.44 ± 0.50 | 1.48 ± 0.50 |
3 to <6 years | 3.87 ± 0.82 | 3.85 ± 0.82 | 3.89 ± 0.83 | 3.79 ± 0.82 | 3.81 ± 0.83 | 3.76 ± 0.82 | |
6 to <10 years | 7.60 ± 1.12 | 7.55 ± 1.11 | 7.66 ± 1.12 | 7.57 ± 1.10 | 7.61 ± 1.11 | 7.53 ± 1.09 | |
1 to <3 years | 162 (22.9) * | 84 (23.5) * | 78 (22.3) * | 294 (39.7) * | 144 (38.8) * | 150 (40.5) * | |
Age group, n (%) | 3 to <6 years | 244 (34.5) * | 122 (34.2) * | 122 (34.9) * | 262 (35.4) * | 128 (34.5) * | 134 (36.2) * |
6 to <10 years | 301 (42.6) * | 151 (42.3) * | 150 (42.9) * | 185 (25) * | 99 (26.7) * | 86 (23.2) * | |
Anthropometric characteristics, median (IQR) | Z-BMI/Age | 0.6 (−0.3–1.5) | 0.6 (−0.3–1.5) | 0.6 (−0.3–1.4) | 0.5 (−0.3–(−1.4) | 0.45 (−0.3–1.4) | 0.5 (−0.3–1.4) |
Z-Weight/Age | 0.5 (−0.3–1.2) | 0.4 (−0.4–1.2) | 0.6 (−0.3–1.3) | 0.6 (−0.3–1.4) | 0.6 (−0.1–1.4) | 0.5 (−0.3–1.4) | |
Z-Height/Age | −0.3 (−1.2–(−0.9)) | −0.2 (−1.1–1.0) | −0.4 (−1.3–0.7) | −0.4 ** (−1.4–0.6) | −0.4 ** (−1.4–0.6) | −0.4 (−1.5–0.6) | |
PAL, median (IQR) | 1 to <3 years | 1.6 (1.3–1.8) | 1.6 (1.4–1.8) | 1.5 (1.3–1.8) | 1.5(1.3–1.7) | 1.5 (1.3–1.8) | 1.5(1.3–1.7) |
3 to <6 years | 1.6 (1.4–1.7) | 1.6 (1.4–1.7) | 1.5 (1.4–1.7) | 1.5 (1.4–1.7) | 1.5(1.4–1.7) | 1.5(1.4–1.7) | |
6 to <10 years | 1.6 (1.4–1.7) | 1.6 (1.4–1.8) | 1.6 (1.5–1.7) | 1.6 (1.5–1.7) | 1.6(1.5–1.8) | 1.6(1.5–1.7) | |
Size of the municipality, n (%) | 50.001 a 300.000 people | 376 (53.2) | 193 (54.1) | 183 (52.3) | 406 (54.8) | 204 (55.0) | 202 (54.6) |
>300.000 people | 331 (46.8) | 164 (45.9) | 167 (47.7) | 335 (45.2) | 167 (45.0) | 168 (45.4) | |
Highest level of education achieved by one of the parents, n (%) | ≤10 years of education | 23 (3.3) | 10 (2.9) | 13 (3.8) | 14 (1.9) | 7 (1.9) | 7 (1.9) |
Secondary education | 416 (60.5) | 219 (62.9) | 197 (57.9) | 414 (57.0) | 208 (57.5) | 206 (56.6) | |
University studies | 249 (36.2) | 119 (34.2) | 130 (38.2) | 298 (41.0) | 147 (40.6) | 151 (41.5) | |
Family income, n (%) | Low (<1500 EUR) | 171 (24.2) | 79 (22.1) | 92 (26.3) | 163 (22.0) | 84 (22.6) | 79 (21.4) |
Medium (1501 to 2000 EUR) | 126 (17.8) | 67 (18.8) | 59 (16.9) | 134 (18.1) | 64 (17.3) | 70 (18.9) | |
High (>2000 EUR) | 226 (32.0) | 123 (34.5) | 103 (29.4) | 238 (32.1) | 110 (29.6) | 128 (34.6) | |
No answer/doesn’t know | 184 (26.0) | 88 (24.6) | 96 (27.4) | 206 (27.8) | 113 (30.5) | 93 (25.1) | |
Number of feeding bottles or glasses of milk per day, n (%) | Less than 2 | 222 (32.9) | 110 (32.0) | 115 (33.8) | 178 (24.1) | 92 (24.9) | 86 (23.3) |
2 o more | 459 (67.1) | 234 (68.0) | 225 (66.2) | 561 (75.9) | 278 (75.1) | 283 (76.7) |
Reference Group (REF) | |||||||
1 to <3 Years n = 162 | 3 to <6 Years n = 244 | 6 to <10 Years n = 301 | |||||
Median | IQR | Median | IQR | Median | IQR | p | |
Zinc (mg/day) | 5.1 a | 2.1 | 6.9 b | 1.7 | 7.9 c | 2.8 | <0.001 |
Selenium (µg/kg) | 38 a | 27 | 58 b | 19 | 70 c | 21 | <0.001 |
Vitamin A (µg/day) ~ | 495 | 401 | 499 | 400 | 450 | 391 | 0.473 |
Retinol (µg RE/day) ~ | 202 a | 166 | 238 b | 184 | 242 b | 233 | <0.001 |
Carotenoids (µg/day) ~ | 1383 a | 2000 | 1106 a | 1541 | 743 b | 1304 | <0.001 |
Vitamin C (mg/day) | 78 a | 44 | 69 b | 33 | 71 ab | 42 | 0.021 |
Vitamin E (mg/day) | 3.9 a | 2.4 | 4.7 b | 2.4 | 4.7 b | 2.6 | 0.002 |
Fortified Milk Consumers (FMCs) | |||||||
1 to <3 years n = 162 | 3 to <6 years n = 244 | 6 to <10 years n = 301 | |||||
Median | IQR | Median | IQR | Median | IQR | p | |
Zinc (mg/day) | 6.5 a* | 2.1 | 8.6 b* | 3.1 | 10.9 c* | 5.0 | <0.001 |
Selenium (µg/kg) | 37 a | 20 | 54 b* | 15 | 67 c* | 20 | <0.001 |
Vitamin A (µg/day) ~ | 693 * | 360 | 596 * | 359 | 605 * | 327 | 0.473 |
Retinol (µg RE/day) ~ | 368 a* | 179 | 372 b* | 198 | 410 b* | 284 | <0.001 |
Carotenoids (µg/day) ~ | 1492 a | 1879 | 666 a* | 1384 | 763 b | 1049 | <0.001 |
Vitamin C (mg/day) | 119 a* | 33 | 107 b* | 49 | 110 ab* | 56 | 0.021 |
Vitamin E (mg/day) | 8.4 a* | 2.8 | 8.9 b* | 3.5 | 9.6 b* | 3.9 | <0.001 |
Reference Group (REF) | ||||||||||
1 to <3 Years n = 162 | 3 to <6 Years n = 244 | 6 to <10 Years n = 301 | ||||||||
% <AR | % >AR | % >UL | % <AR | % >AR | % >UL | % <AR | % >AR | % >UL | p | |
Zinc | 14.8 | 72.2 | 13.0 | 1.2 | 82.0 | 16.8 | 14.6 | 81.7 | 3.7 | <0.001 |
Selenium | 5.6 | 80.9 a | 13.6 | 0 | 79.1 a | 20.9 | 0.3 | 97.0 b | 2.7 | <0.001 |
Vitamin A | 10.5 | 68.5 | 21.0 | 10.2 | 75.4 | 14.3 | 22.9 | 69.4 | 7.6 | <0.001 |
Vitamin C | 1.2 | 98.8 a | 0 | 0.0 | 100 a | 0 | 7.0 | 93.0 b | 0 | <0.001 |
Vitamin E | 79.6 | 20.4 a | 0 | 97.1 | 2.9 b | 0 | 95.0 | 5.0 b | 0 | <0.001 |
Fortified Milk Consumers (FMCs) | ||||||||||
1 to <3 years n = 294 | 3 to <6 years n = 262 | 6 to <10 years n = 185 | ||||||||
% <AR | % >AR | % >UL | % <AR | % >AR | % >UL | % <AR | % >AR | % >UL | p | |
Zinc | 0.7 * | 63.9 a | 35.4 * | 1.1 | 43.5 *b | 55.3 * | 4.3 * | 57.8 *a | 37.8 * | <0.001 |
Selenium | 3.4 | 87.4 a | 9.2 | 0 | 90.1 *a | 9.9 * | 0.5 | 97.3 b | 2.2 | <0.001 |
Vitamin A | 0.7 * | 65.3 a | 34.0 * | 2.3 * | 81.7 b | 16.0 | 10.8 * | 83.8 *b | 5.4 | <0.001 |
Vitamin C | 0.0 | 100 | 0 | 0.0 | 100 | 0 | 0.5 * | 99.5 * | 0 | 0.000 |
Vitamin E | 9.2 * | 90.8 *a | 0 * | 53.8 * | 46.2 *b | 0 | 42.7 * | 57.3 *b | 0 | <0.001 |
Reference Group (REF) | Fortified Milk Consumers (FMCs) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total n = 687 | Total n = 726 | |||||||
(g/day) | Mean | β | CI (95%) | p | Mean | β | CI (95%) | p |
Zinc | 6.9294 | 8.4380 | ||||||
Geographical area | −0.053 | (−0.130)–0.024 | 0.003 * | 0.021 | (−0.078)–0.120 | 0.675 | ||
Family income | 0.087 | (−0.091)–0.266 | 0.001 * | −0.004 | (−0.240)–0.232 | 0.973 | ||
Higher level of parents’ education | 0.012 | (−0.124)–0.147 | 0.000 * | −0.010 | (−0.190)–0.169 | 0.908 | ||
Selenium | 58.9901 | 51.5507 | ||||||
Geographical area | −1.235 | (−2.066)–(−0.404) | 0.004 * | −0.496 | (−1.245)–0.252 | 0.193 | ||
Family income | 1.412 | (−0.511)–3.334 | 0.003 * | 1.428 | (−0.357)–3.212 | 0.117 | ||
Higher level of parents’ education | 0.147 | (−1.315)–1.609 | 0.000 * | −0.786 | (−2.142)–0.570 | 0.256 | ||
Vitamin A | 625.8606 | 719.4928 | ||||||
Geographical area | −6.088 | (−23.872)–11.696 | 0.502 | −0.607 | (−14.012)–12.798 | 0.929 | ||
Family income | 14.509 | (−26.639)–55.656 | 0.489 | 3.467 | (−28.493)–35.427 | 0.831 | ||
Higher level of parents’ education | 36.387 | 5.099–67.675 | 0.023 * | −2.160 | (−26.448)–22.127 | 0.861 | ||
Vitamin C | 73.8804 | 107.0817 | ||||||
Geographical area | 2.086 | 0.786–3.387 | 0.002 * | 2.577 | 1.210–3.944 | 0.000 * | ||
Family income | 0.420 | (−2.589)–3.429 | 0.784 | 1.951 | (−1.308)–5.210 | 0.240 | ||
Higher level of parents’ education | 3.122 | 0.834–5.410 | 0.008 * | 0.535 | (−1.942)–3.012 | 0.672 | ||
Vitamin E | 4.8900 | 8.6167 | ||||||
Geographical area | −0.108 | (−0.203)–(−0.013) | 0.026 * | −0.078 | (−0.183)–0.026 | 0.141 | ||
Family income | 0.107 | (−0.113)–0.327 | 0.342 | −0.107 | (−0.355)–0.142 | 0.399 | ||
Higher level of parents’ education | −0.079 | (−0.246)–0.089 | 0.356 | 0.035 | (−0.154)–0.223 | 0.719 |
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Madrigal, C.; Soto-Méndez, M.J.; Hernández-Ruiz, Á.; Ruiz-López, M.D.; Samaniego-Vaesken, M.d.L.; Partearroyo, T.; Varela-Moreiras, G.; Gil, Á. Dietary Intake, Nutritional Adequacy, and Food Sources of Selected Antioxidant Minerals and Vitamins; and Their Relationship with Personal and Family Factors in Spanish Children Aged 1 to <10 Years: Results from the EsNuPI Study. Nutrients 2022, 14, 4132. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14194132
Madrigal C, Soto-Méndez MJ, Hernández-Ruiz Á, Ruiz-López MD, Samaniego-Vaesken MdL, Partearroyo T, Varela-Moreiras G, Gil Á. Dietary Intake, Nutritional Adequacy, and Food Sources of Selected Antioxidant Minerals and Vitamins; and Their Relationship with Personal and Family Factors in Spanish Children Aged 1 to <10 Years: Results from the EsNuPI Study. Nutrients. 2022; 14(19):4132. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14194132
Chicago/Turabian StyleMadrigal, Casandra, María José Soto-Méndez, Ángela Hernández-Ruiz, María Dolores Ruiz-López, María de Lourdes Samaniego-Vaesken, Teresa Partearroyo, Gregorio Varela-Moreiras, and Ángel Gil. 2022. "Dietary Intake, Nutritional Adequacy, and Food Sources of Selected Antioxidant Minerals and Vitamins; and Their Relationship with Personal and Family Factors in Spanish Children Aged 1 to <10 Years: Results from the EsNuPI Study" Nutrients 14, no. 19: 4132. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14194132
APA StyleMadrigal, C., Soto-Méndez, M. J., Hernández-Ruiz, Á., Ruiz-López, M. D., Samaniego-Vaesken, M. d. L., Partearroyo, T., Varela-Moreiras, G., & Gil, Á. (2022). Dietary Intake, Nutritional Adequacy, and Food Sources of Selected Antioxidant Minerals and Vitamins; and Their Relationship with Personal and Family Factors in Spanish Children Aged 1 to <10 Years: Results from the EsNuPI Study. Nutrients, 14(19), 4132. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14194132