Impact of DHA from Algal Oil on the Breast Milk DHA Levels of Lactating Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial in China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Subjects
2.2. Study Design
2.2.1. Pattern and Content of the Intervention
2.2.2. Basic Information Collection
2.2.3. Collection and Assessment of Dietary Information
2.2.4. Breast Milk Collection and DHA Level Analysis
2.3. Statistical Analysis
2.3.1. Estimation of Sample Size
2.3.2. Development of Dietary Pattern
2.3.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Baseline Information
3.2. Maternal Daily Dietary Energy and Nutrient Intakes between the Two Study Groups at Enrollment and the End of the Trial
3.3. Intervention Effect of DHA from Algal Oil on DHA Level in Breast Milk
3.4. Changes in DHA Levels of Breast Milk in the Supplement Group with Respect to Dietary Patterns
4. Discussion
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Control Group | Supplement Group | t/χ² | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age, year (mean ± SD) | 29.8 ± 3.2 | 29.7 ± 4.0 | 0.193 | 0.847 |
Education, n (%) | 1.333 | 0.721 | ||
High school education or lower | 10 (16.7) | 11 (14.3) | ||
Vocational–technical school education | 12 (20.0) | 18 (23.4) | ||
University education or higher | 38 (63.3) | 48 (62.3) | ||
Gestational age, week | 39.0 ± 1.0 | 39.0 ± 1.4 | −0.053 | 0.958 |
Parity, n (%) | 0.136 | 0.712 | ||
1 | 40 (66.7) | 49 (63.6) | ||
≥2 | 20 (33.3) | 28 (36.4) | ||
Height, cm | 160.5 ± 7.0 | 162.0 ± 5.0 | −0.864 | 0.388 |
Pre-pregnancy weight, kg | 54.0 ± 9.8 | 55.0 ± 8.0 | −1.273 | 0.203 |
Weight at delivery, kg | 69.5 ± 12.0 | 70.0 ± 9.0 | −1.390 | 0.164 |
Pre-pregnancy BMI, kg/m2 | 21.1 ± 2.5 | 21.3 ± 3.8 | −0.822 | 0.411 |
Pre-pregnancy BMI category a, n (%) | 1.605 | 0.658 | ||
Underweight | 6 (10.0) | 10 (13.0) | ||
Normal weight | 46 (76.7) | 54 (70.1) | ||
Overweight | 7 (11.7) | 9 (11.7) | ||
Obesity | 1 (1.7) | 4 (5.2) | ||
Weight gain during pregnancy, kg | 15.0 ± 5.4 | 15.0 ± 5.5 | −0.687 | 0.492 |
Weight at enrollment, kg | 60.0 ± 10.0 | 61.0 ± 8.75 | −1.521 | 0.128 |
BMI at enrollment, kg/m2 | 23.3 ± 2.4 | 23.8 ± 2.8 | −1.15 | 0.252 |
BMI category at enrollment | 1.899 | 0.387 | ||
Underweight | 0 | 0 | ||
Normal weight | 36 (60.0) | 43 (55.8) | ||
Overweight | 23 (38.3) | 29 (37.7) | ||
Obesity | 1 (1.7) | 5 (6.5) |
Intakes | At Enrollment | At the End of the Trial | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control Group | Supplement Group | p Value | Control Group | Supplement Group | p Value | |
Energy, kcal/d | 2335.41 ± 715.35 | 2294.49 ± 583.43 | 0.374 Δ | 2160.21 ± 824.95 | 2155.68 ± 579.99 | 0.484 Δ |
Protein, g/d | 101.99 ± 35.56 | 96.18 ± 44.33 | 0.338 | 86.15 ± 41.01 | 87.48 ± 33.79 | 0.890 |
Protein, %E | 17.23 ± 4.38 | 17.42 ± 4.84 | 0.632 Δ | 15.87 ± 3.53 | 16.71 ± 3.93 | 0.397 Δ |
Fat, g/d | 89.11 ± 28.41 | 85.86 ± 26.69 | 0.314 | 78.66 ± 34.78 | 78.42 ± 21.77 | 0.549 |
Fat, %E | 33.53 ± 8.86 | 33.75 ± 7.98 | 0.603 | 33.11 ± 10.08 | 33.09 ± 7.53 | 0.535 |
Carbohydrates, g/d | 290.37 ± 110.80 | 282.82 ± 108.31 | 0.799 Δ | 273.86 ± 121.95 | 267.50 ± 112.06 | 0.652 |
Carbohydrates, %E | 48.89 ± 11.50 | 49.52 ± 10.71 | 0.478 Δ | 50.90 ± 10.86 | 51.40 ± 9.88 | 0.709 Δ |
Total fatty acids, g/d | 78.86 ± 19.96 | 74.49 ± 20.77 | 0.270 | 67.74 ± 30.97 | 68.71 ± 22.14 | 0.758 |
SFA, g/d | 20.73 ± 7.07 | 20.76 ± 8.74 | 0.528 Δ | 17.25 ± 9.93 | 17.75 ± 8.74 | 0.972 |
SFA, %E | 8.06 ± 3.08 | 8.03 ± 2.69 | 0.986 | 7.71 ± 3.00 | 7.83 ± 2.87 | 0.853 Δ |
MUFA, g/d | 33.84 ± 12.19 | 32.39 ± 11.25 | 0.304 | 30.45 ± 14.37 | 30.62 ± 9.81 | 0.330 Δ |
PUFA, g/d | 23.26 ± 6.95 | 22.02 ± 7.12 | 0.223 | 20.77 ± 7.95 | 20.87 ± 9.80 | 0.591 |
PA, g/d | 11.59 ± 7.42 | 10.42 ± 7.22 | 0.265 | 9.43 ± 9.16 | 8.43 ± 7.54 | 0.549 |
SA, g/d | 4.89 ± 3.14 | 4.37 ± 3.32 | 0.524 | 3.57 ± 3.62 | 3.70 ± 2.95 | 0.938 |
POA, g/d | 1.25 ± 1.03 | 1.15 ± 1.08 | 0.410 | 0.91 ± 0.92 | 0.88 ± 0.86 | 0.818 |
OA, g/d | 22.47 ± 14.01 | 18.64 ± 12.96 | 0.187 | 17.04 ± 19.48 | 15.76 ± 14.10 | 0.541 |
LA, g/d | 17.61 ± 10.81 | 14.98 ± 9.60 | 0.072 | 13.24 ± 9.65 | 13.44 ± 9.83 | 0.448 |
ALA, g/d | 2.43 ± 3.66 | 2.13 ± 1.37 | 0.087 | 2.05 ± 2.25 | 1.84 ± 1.48 | 0.371 |
ARA, g/d | 0.23 ± 0.36 | 0.22 ± 0.26 | 0.410 | 0.17 ± 0.21 | 0.17 ± 0.23 | 0.835 |
EPA, g/d | 36.19 ± 59.28 | 32.04 ± 72.04 | 0.371 | 17.93 ± 46.02 | 18.92 ± 59.34 | 0.619 |
DHA, g/d | 48.92 ± 51.73 | 40.5 ± 50.69 | 0.211 | 31.95 ± 30.65 | 33.85 ± 43.37 | 0.607 |
n-3 PUFA, g/d | 2.57 ± 3.78 | 2.20 ± 1.37 | 0.077 | 2.14 ± 2.30 | 1.88 ± 1.59 | 0.367 |
n-3 PUFA, %E | 0.94 ± 1.07 | 0.85 ± 0.52 | 0.077 | 0.96 ± 0.87 | 0.88 ± 0.52 | 0.333 |
n-6 PUFA, g/d | 17.74 ± 10.87 | 15.18 ± 9.83 | 0.072 | 13.56 ± 9.93 | 13.51 ± 10.00 | 0.415 |
n-6 PUFA, %E | 6.75 ± 3.46 | 6.26 ± 3.37 | 0.066 | 5.64 ± 4.83 | 5.68 ± 3.58 | 0.344 |
n-6/n-3 PUFA | 6.66 ± 5.67 | 6.88 ± 5.00 | 0.349 | 6.45 ± 4.81 | 6.80 ± 5.19 | 0.872 |
Fatty Acid, mg/100 mL | Control Group | Supplement Group | p Value a | p Value b | p Value c | p Value d | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
At Enrollment | At the End of the Trial | At Enrollment | At the End of the Trial | |||||
Milk fat, g/100 mL | 3.86 ± 1.61 | 3.14 ± 2.03 | 3.70 ± 2.15 | 3.47 ± 2.30 | 0.483 | 0.716 | 0.128 | 0.688 |
Total fatty acids | 3350.65 ± 1368.64 | 2766.48 ± 1581.62 | 3139.61 ± 1813.13 | 3018.65 ± 2039.50 | 0.306 | 0.712 | 0.122 | 0.895 |
SFA | 1118.94 ± 396.45 | 962.79 ± 606.38 | 1039.70 ± 631.60 | 980.27 ± 617.43 | 0.140 | 0.661 | 0.116 | 0.810 |
MUFA | 1212.41 ± 599.12 | 1100.84 ± 741.44 | 1243.36 ± 755.57 | 1134.22 ± 819.33 | 0.828 | 0.535 | 0.080 | 0.626 |
PUFA | 884.47 ± 343.77 | 746.51 ± 503.29 | 813.39 ± 373.08 | 786.61 ± 520.33 | 0.288 | 0.938 | 0.327 | 0.920 |
n-6 PUFA | 807.80 ± 319.15 | 705.87 ± 463.12 | 733.88 ± 321.12 | 678.83 ± 474.72 | 0.241 | 0.805 | 0.430 | 0.895 |
n-3 PUFA | 64.22 ± 44.33 | 60.48 ± 41.55 | 69.08 ± 48.19 | 69.73 ± 53.42 | 0.398 | 0.146 | 0.430 | 0.806 |
n-6/n-3 | 11.92 ± 6.67 | 11.79 ± 8.04 | 10.72 ± 5.40 | 9.92 ± 6.01 | 0.136 | 0.005 | 0.534 | 0.059 |
LA | 731.60 ± 290.04 | 657.96 ± 400.72 | 664.96 ± 278.77 | 634.92 ± 445.66 | 0.247 | 0.768 | 0.467 | 0.937 |
GLA | 6.16 ± 3.81 | 3.87 ± 2.91 | 5.10 ± 4.24 | 3.92 ± 2.80 | 0.243 | 0.811 | <0.001 | 0.093 |
ALA | 46.71 ± 37.85 | 46.81 ± 42.16 | 50.32 ± 39.27 | 51.31 ± 47.02 | 0.443 | 0.233 | 0.697 | 0.788 |
ARA | 21.68 ± 9.59 | 15.54 ± 9.97 | 21.54 ± 15.15 | 16.61 ± 12.74 | 0.771 | 0.671 | 0.001 | 0.031 |
EPA | 1.33 ± 1.30 | 1.26 ± 1.30 | 1.46 ± 1.87 | 1.53 ± 2.05 | 0.828 | 0.335 | 0.928 | 0.244 |
DHA | 10.55 ± 5.84 | 7.57 ± 6.30 | 11.88 ± 9.59 | 10.07 ± 13.16 | 0.531 | 0.012 | 0.037 | 0.873 |
ARA/DHA | 2.01 ± 0.85 | 2.06 ± 1.30 | 2.00 ± 0.90 | 1.47 ± 1.06 | 0.742 | <0.001 | 0.328 | 0.003 |
Fatty Acid, % | Control Group | Supplement Group | p Value a | p Value b | p Value c | p Value d | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
At Enrollment | At the End of the Trial | At Enrollment | At the End of the Trial | |||||
SFA | 34.99 ± 5.62 | 34.88 ± 4.52 | 33.85 ± 4.45 | 34.76 ± 5.56 | 0.063 Δ | 0.910 | 0.647 | 0.013 |
MUFA | 38.25 ± 5.40 | 37.79 ± 6.77 | 39.58 ± 5.00 | 38.43 ± 5.15 | 0.072 Δ | 0.328 Δ | 0.630 | 0.062 |
PUFA | 26.44 ± 6.82 | 26.84 ± 5.06 | 26.72 ± 5.37 | 25.74 ± 5.84 | 0.973 Δ | 0.124 Δ | 0.442 | 0.290 |
n-6 PUFA | 24.49 ± 6.36 | 24.67 ± 5.25 | 24.47 ± 5.22 | 23.08 ± 5.07 | 0.976 | 0.044 Δ | 0.558 | 0.142 |
n-3 PUFA | 1.87 ± 0.93 | 2.12 ± 1.23 | 2.15 ± 0.98 | 2.41 ± 1.13 | 0.062 | 0.036 | 0.285 | 0.152 |
LA | 22.41 ± 6.00 | 23.30 ± 5.42 | 22.10 ± 4.84 | 21.16 ± 5.13 | 0.879 | 0.043 Δ | 0.285 | 0.476 |
GLA | 0.18 ± 0.11 | 0.14 ± 0.08 | 0.16 ± 0.08 | 0.13 ± 0.07 | 0.286 Δ | 0.499 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
ALA | 1.5 ± 0.78 | 1.63 ± 1.05 | 1.64 ± 0.75 | 1.83 ± 1.18 | 0.151 | 0.101 | 0.166 | 0.144 |
ARA | 0.65 ± 0.23 | 0.56 ± 0.17 | 0.70 ± 0.23 | 0.59 ± 0.20 | 0.119 Δ | 0.642 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
EPA | 0.04 ± 0.03 | 0.05 ± 0.04 | 0.04 ± 0.03 | 0.06 ± 0.04 | 0.706 | 0.422 | 0.316 | 0.284 |
DHA | 0.32 ± 0.18 | 0.28 ± 0.15 | 0.34 ± 0.23 | 0.40 ± 0.29 | 0.248 | 0.001 | 0.277 | 0.858 |
DHA | Pattern 1 (n = 21) | Pattern 2 (n = 16) | Pattern 3 (n = 23) | Pattern 4 (n = 17) | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Absolute concentration, mg/100 mL | −0.23 ± 8.22 | 1.52 ± 12.25 | −5.61 ± 10.91 | 2.29 ± 11.46 | 0.013 |
Relative concentration, % | 0.05 ± 0.20 | 0 ± 0.39 | −0.08 ± 0.24 | 0.07 ± 0.20 | 0.267 Δ |
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Yang, Y.; Li, G.; Li, F.; Xu, F.; Hu, P.; Xie, Z.; Lu, X.; Ding, Y.; Wang, Z. Impact of DHA from Algal Oil on the Breast Milk DHA Levels of Lactating Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial in China. Nutrients 2022, 14, 3410. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14163410
Yang Y, Li G, Li F, Xu F, Hu P, Xie Z, Lu X, Ding Y, Wang Z. Impact of DHA from Algal Oil on the Breast Milk DHA Levels of Lactating Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial in China. Nutrients. 2022; 14(16):3410. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14163410
Chicago/Turabian StyleYang, Yue, Genyuan Li, Fang Li, Fangping Xu, Ping Hu, Zhencheng Xie, Xiaolong Lu, Ye Ding, and Zhixu Wang. 2022. "Impact of DHA from Algal Oil on the Breast Milk DHA Levels of Lactating Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial in China" Nutrients 14, no. 16: 3410. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14163410