Association between Legume Consumption and Risk of Hypertension in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)-Norfolk Cohort
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Exposure Variables
2.3. Outcome Measurement
2.4. Confounding Variables
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participants
3.2. Legume Intake
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
1 | We would like to know the type and amount of physical activity involved in your work. Please tick what best corresponds to your present activities from the following four possibilities. | |
___ Sedentary occupation | You spend most of your time sitting (such as in an office). | |
___ Standing occupation | You spend most of your time standing or walking. However, your work does not require intense physical efforts (e.g., shop assistant, hairdresser, guard). | |
___ Physical work | This involves some physical effort including handling of heavy objects and use of tools (e.g., plumber, cleaner, nurse, sports instructor, electrician, carpenter). | |
___ Heavy manual work | This involves very vigorous physical activity including handling of very heavy objects (e.g., docker, miner, bricklayer, construction worker). | |
2 | In a typical week during the past 12 months, how many hours did you spend on each of the following activities? (Put ‘0’ if none.) Cycling, including cycling to work and during leisure time | |
In summer ____ hours per week | ||
In winter ____ hours per week | ||
Other physical exercise such as keep fit, aerobics, swimming, jogging | ||
In summer ____ hours per week | ||
In winter ____ hours per week | ||
Hours per day of recreational activity computed from [(mean of summer and winter hours per week cycling) + (mean of summer and winter hours per week other physical exercise)]/7 |
Appendix B
Category Description | |
Inactive | Sedentary job and no recreational activity |
Moderately inactive | Sedentary job with <0.5 h recreational activity per day inactive or standing job with no recreational activity |
Moderately active | Sedentary job with 0.5–1 h recreational activity per dayor standing job with 0.5 h recreational activity per day or physical job with no recreational activity |
Active | Sedentary job with >1 h recreational activity per dayor standing job with >1 h recreational activity per dayor physical job with at least some recreational activity or heavy manual job |
These categories are derived from the two questions in Appendix A. |
References
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All (n = 7522) | Men (n = 3492) | Women (n = 4030) | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) | ||||
Age at entry (years) | 58.0 (8.9) | 58.7 (8.9) | 57.4 (8.8) | <0.001 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 26.0 (3.7) | 26.4 (3.2) | 25.7 (4.1) | <0.001 |
Legume intake (g/day) | 17.3 (16.3) | 20.0 (18.6) | 14.9 (13.6) | <0.001 |
Energy intake (kJ/day) | 8505 (2144) | 9770 (2031) | 7409 (1553) | <0.001 |
Alcohol intake (g/day) | 12.3 (17.0) | 17.1 (20.8) | 8.1 (11.3) | <0.001 |
Protein intake (g/day) | 75.3 (17.5) | 84.7 (17.0) | 67.2 (13.4) | <0.001 |
Sodium intake (mg/day) | 2924 (844) | 3359 (845) | 2546 (636) | <0.001 |
Fruit and vegetable intake (g/day) | 333 (162) | 320 (158) | 343 (164) | <0.001 |
Red meat intake (g/day) | 33.2 (26.7) | 39.7 (29.4) | 27.6 (22.7) | <0.001 |
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 134.5 (17.8) | 136.8 (16.9) | 132.4 (18.3) | <0.001 |
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 82.2 (11.1) | 84.3 (10.9) | 80.4 (1.0) | <0.001 |
Townsend Deprivation Index (index) | −2.15 (2.0) | −2.19 (2.1) | −2.12 (2.1) | 0.144 |
Number (%) | ||||
Self-reported high blood pressure | 942 (12.5) | 457 (13.1) | 485 (12.0) | 0.173 |
Smoking status at baseline | <0.001 | |||
Current smoker | 697 (9.3) | 338 (9.7) | 359 (8.9) | |
Former smoked | 3166 (42.1) | 1902 (54.5) | 1264 (31.4) | |
Never smoked | 3659 (48.6) | 1252 (35.8) | 2407 (59.7) | |
Physical Activity Level at baseline: | <0.001 | |||
Inactive | 1933 (25.7) | 923 (26.4) | 1010 (25.1) | |
Moderately inactive | 2199 (29.2) | 884 (25.3) | 1315 (32.6) | |
Moderately active | 1832 (24.4) | 857 (24.5) | 975 (24.2) | |
Active | 1558 (20.7) | 828 (23.7) | 730 (18.1) | |
Education level: | <0.001 | |||
No education | 2492 (33.1) | 954 (27.3) | 1538 (38.1) | |
GCSE/O Level | 823 (10.9) | 308 (8.8) | 515 (12.8) | |
A-Level | 3176 (42.3) | 1670 (47.8) | 1506 (37.4) | |
Degree or higher | 1031 (13.7) | 560 (16.0) | 471 (11.7) | |
Social class by occupation: | <0.001 | |||
Unknown | 52 (0.7) | 25 (0.7) | 27 (0.7) | |
Professional | 349 (4.6) | 277 (7.9) | 72 (1.8) | |
Manager | 2504 (33.3) | 1365 (39.1) | 1139 (28.3) | |
Skilled non-manual | 2058 (27.4) | 432 (12.4) | 1626 (40.3) | |
Skilled manual | 1109 (14.7) | 856 (24.5) | 253 (6.2) | |
Semi-skilled | 1127 (14.9) | 459 (13.1) | 668 (16.6) | |
Non-skilled | 323 (4.3) | 78 (2.2) | 245 (6.1) |
Percentile (g/day) | Unadjusted Model | Model A | Model B | Model C | Model D | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | |
3rd (1.84) | 1.47 ** | 1.12, 1.91 | 1.34 * | 1.02, 1.77 | 1.33 * | 1.01, 1.76 | 1.34 * | 1.01, 1.77 | 1.36 * | 1.03, 1.80 |
5th (3.15) | 1.43 *** | 1.16, 1.77 | 1.33 * | 1.07, 1.65 | 1.32 * | 1.06, 1.65 | 1.34 ** | 1.08, 1.68 | 1.37 ** | 1.10, 1.71 |
10th (4.14) | 1.11 | 0.96, 1.29 | 1.02 | 0.88, 1.20 | 1.04 | 0.88, 1.21 | 1.04 | 0.89, 1.22 | 1.05 | 0.90, 1.24 |
50th (13.8) | 0.96 | 0.87, 1.05 | 1.02 | 0.92, 1.12 | 1.00 | 0.91, 1.11 | 1.01 | 0.91, 1.12 | 1.00 | 0.90, 1.10 |
90th (33.9) | 0.84 * | 0.72, 0.99 | 0.956 | 0.81, 1.12 | 0.95 | 0.80, 1.12 | 0.95 | 0.80, 1.12 | 0.93 | 0.79, 1.10 |
95th (45.2) | 0.83 | 0.67, 1.04 | 0.94 | 0.75, 1.18 | 0.92 | 0.73, 1.16 | 0.94 | 0.75, 1.19 | 0.93 | 0.74, 1.17 |
97th (56.6) | 0.65 ** | 0.49, 0.87 | 0.72 * | 0.54, 0.97 | 0.69 * | 0.52, 0.94 | 0.72 * | 0.53, 0.97 | 0.71 * | 0.52, 0.96 |
Men | ||||||||||
3rd (2.55) | 1.66 * | 1.12, 2.47 | 1.53 * | 1.01, 2.30 | 1.43 | 0.94, 2.16 | 1.38 | 0.91, 2.09 | 1.42 | 0.94, 2.17 |
5th (3.49) | 1.26 | 0.93, 1.70 | 1.15 | 0.84, 1.57 | 1.08 | 0.79, 1.49 | 1.06 | 0.77, 1.46 | 1.09 | 0.79, 1.51 |
10th (5.23) | 1.16 | 0.93, 1.45 | 1.07 | 0.85, 1.35 | 1.04 | 0.82, 1.31 | 1.03 | 0.81, 1.30 | 1.06 | 0.83, 1.34 |
50th (14.9) | 0.92 | 0.80, 1.05 | 0.96 | 0.83, 1.10 | 0.97 | 0.84, 1.12 | 0.98 | 0.85, 1.13 | 0.96 | 0.84, 1.11 |
90th (39.5) | 0.79* | 0.63, 0.99 | 0.89 | 0.71, 1.12 | 0.91 | 0.72, 1.16 | 0.93 | 0.74, 1.19 | 0.91 | 0.72, 1.16 |
95th (54.6) | 0.69* | 0.50, 0.94 | 0.76 | 0.55, 1.06 | 0.78 | 0.56, 1.09 | 0.82 | 0.58, 1.14 | 0.80 | 0.57, 1.12 |
97th (66.2) | 0.81 | 0.54, 1.21 | 0.90 | 0.60, 1.35 | 0.94 | 0.62, 1.43 | 1.00 | 0.66, 1.53 | 0.98 | 0.65, 1.50 |
Women | ||||||||||
3rd (1.84) | 1.52 * | 1.09, 2.12 | 1.31 | 0.92, 1.87 | 1.31 | 0.92, 1.86 | 1.35 | 0.95, 1.93 | 1.36 | 0.95, 1.95 |
5th (2.75) | 1.62 *** | 1.23, 2.15 | 1.51 ** | 1.13, 2.03 | 1.50 ** | 1.12, 2.02 | 1.55 ** | 1.15, 2.10 | 1.58 ** | 1.17, 2.13 |
10th (3.67) | 1.09 | 0.90, 1.34 | 1.02 | 0.83, 1.27 | 1.02 | 0.82, 1.26 | 1.04 | 0.84, 1.29 | 1.05 | 0.84, 1.30 |
50th (11.4) | 0.88 * | 0.77, 0.99 | 0.97 | 0.85, 1.12 | 0.98 | 0.85, 1.13 | 0.99 | 0.86, 1.14 | 0.99 | 0.86, 1.14 |
90th (30.2) | 0.83 | 0.66, 1.03 | 0.93 | 0.74, 1.18 | 0.95 | 0.75, 1.20 | 0.97 | 0.76, 1.23 | 0.97 | 0.77, 1.24 |
95th (38.3) | 0.61 ** | 0.44, 0.85 | 0.73 | 0.52, 1.03 | 0.74 | 0.53, 1.05 | 0.75 | 0.53, 1.06 | 0.75 | 0.53, 1.07 |
97th (44.8) | 0.58 * | 0.38, 0.88 | 0.70 | 0.45, 1.08 | 0.70 | 0.46, 1.10 | 0.73 | 0.46, 1.14 | 0.73 | 0.47, 1.14 |
Legume Intake (g/day) | All (n = 7522) | Men (n = 3492) | Women (n = 4030) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | |
>46 | 0.95 | 0.75, 1.21 | 0.99 | 0.75, 1.32 | 0.76 | 0.48, 1.20 |
>47 | 0.96 | 0.75, 1.23 | 0.99 | 0.74, 1.33 | 0.79 | 0.50, 1.25 |
>48 | 0.92 | 0.72, 1.19 | 0.97 | 0.72, 1.30 | 0.73 | 0.45, 1.18 |
>49 | 0.90 | 0.70, 1.16 | 0.96 | 0.71, 1.30 | 0.63 | 0.37, 1.07 |
>50 | 0.90 | 0.69, 1.17 | 0.96 | 0.70, 1.31 | 0.63 | 0.37, 1.09 |
>51 | 0.89 | 0.68, 1.16 | 0.93 | 0.68, 1.28 | 0.63 | 0.36, 1.10 |
>52 | 0.84 | 0.64, 1.11 | 0.88 | 0.64, 1.22 | 0.61 | 0.35, 1.09 |
>53 | 0.80 | 0.61, 1.07 | 0.86 | 0.62, 1.19 | 0.55 | 0.30, 1.02 |
>54 | 0.74 * | 0.55, 0.99 | 0.83 | 0.60, 1.16 | 0.37 ** | 0.18, 0.75 |
>55 | 0.72 * | 0.54, 0.97 | 0.79 | 0.56, 1.11 | 0.40 * | 0.20, 0.82 |
>56 | 0.70 * | 0.52, 0.94 | 0.76 | 0.54, 1.07 | 0.40 * | 0.20, 0.82 |
>57 | 0.73 * | 0.54, 0.99 | 0.79 | 0.56, 1.12 | 0.43 * | 0.21, 0.87 |
>58 | 0.79 | 0.58, 1.09 | 0.84 | 0.59, 1.21 | 0.48 * | 0.24, 1.00 |
>59 | 0.79 | 0.57, 1.08 | 0.86 | 0.60, 1.24 | 0.44 * | 0.21, 0.94 |
>60 | 0.77 | 0.56, 1.08 | 0.83 | 0.57, 1.21 | 0.47 | 0.22, 1.02 |
>61 | 0.82 | 0.58, 1.15 | 0.88 | 0.60, 1.30 | 0.50 | 0.24, 1.08 |
>62 | 0.82 | 0.58, 1.16 | 0.91 | 0.62, 1.34 | 0.45 * | 0.20, 0.99 |
>63 | 0.86 | 0.60, 1.22 | 0.98 | 0.66, 1.47 | 0.41 * | 0.18, 0.95 |
>64 | 0.87 | 0.61, 1.23 | 0.97 | 0.65, 1.46 | 0.44 | 0.19, 1.02 |
>65 | 0.88 | 0.62, 1,27 | 1.01 | 0.67, 1.53 | 0.41 | 0.17, 1.01 |
>66 | 0.89 | 0.61, 1.28 | 1.01 | 0.67, 1.54 | 0.42 | 0.17, 1.03 |
Legume Intake (g/day) | All (n = 7522) | Men (n = 3492) | Women (n = 4030) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | |
10–24.9 | 0.90 | 0.89, 1.11 | 0.98 | 0.83, 1.16 | 0.97 | 0.84, 1.13 |
25–39.9 | 1.08 | 0.92, 1.27 | 0.94 | 0.75, 1.17 | 1.23 | 0.96, 1.56 |
40–54.9 | 1.01 | 0.78, 1.32 | 1.00 | 0.71, 1.41 | 0.92 | 0.60, 1.42 |
55–69.9 | 0.57 * | 0.37, 0.88 | 0.64 | 0.38, 1.03 | 0.32 * | 0.12, 0.88 |
70–84.9 | 0.70 | 0.34, 1.46 | 0.58 | 0.26, 1.31 | 0.87 | 0.17, 4.53 |
85–99.9 | 1.29 | 0.64, 2.60 | 1.32 | 0.59, 2.93 | 0.95 | 0.18, 4.94 |
>100 | 0.89 | 0.44, 1.78 | 1.12 | 0.51, 2.47 | 0.18 | 0.02, 1.50 |
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Hartley, M.; Fyfe, C.L.; Wareham, N.J.; Khaw, K.-T.; Johnstone, A.M.; Myint, P.K. Association between Legume Consumption and Risk of Hypertension in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)-Norfolk Cohort. Nutrients 2022, 14, 3363. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14163363
Hartley M, Fyfe CL, Wareham NJ, Khaw K-T, Johnstone AM, Myint PK. Association between Legume Consumption and Risk of Hypertension in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)-Norfolk Cohort. Nutrients. 2022; 14(16):3363. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14163363
Chicago/Turabian StyleHartley, Michael, Claire L. Fyfe, Nicholas J. Wareham, Kay-Tee Khaw, Alexandra M. Johnstone, and Phyo K. Myint. 2022. "Association between Legume Consumption and Risk of Hypertension in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)-Norfolk Cohort" Nutrients 14, no. 16: 3363. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14163363