Iodine Status Modifies the Association between Fluoride Exposure in Pregnancy and Preschool Boys’ Intelligence
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Urine Collection
2.3. Maternal Urinary Fluoride Concentration
2.4. Maternal Urinary Iodine Concentration
2.5. Correcting for Variability in Urinary Dilution
2.6. Children’s Full-Scale Intelligence Quotient
2.7. Covariates
2.8. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
Three-Way Interaction Model
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Demographic Characteristic (Mean ± SD or N (%)) | Complete Data (N = 366) | Incomplete Data (N = 211) | p |
---|---|---|---|
Mothers | |||
Maternal Age (years) | 32.50 ± 4.51 | 32.55 ± 4.62 | 0.899 |
Married or Common Law | 353 (96.54) | 205 (97.16) | 0.646 |
White | 334 (91.26) | 181 (85.78) | 0.041 |
Bachelor’s Degree or Higher | 243 (66.39) | 142 (67.30) | 0.824 |
Taking a prenatal multivitamin | 319 (87.40) | 175 (82.94) | 0.140 |
HOME Score | 47.23 ± 4.44 | 47.40 ± 4.10 | 0.649 |
Children | |||
Male | 186 (50.82) | 98 (46.44) | 0.311 |
Age at Testing (years) | 3.44 ± 0.32 | 3.40 ± 0.31 | 0.144 |
Urinary Measurement | All | Boys | Girls | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | Median (IQR) | n | Median (IQR) | n | Median (IQR) | p 1 | |
MUFCRE (mg/g) | 366 | 0.61 (0.49) | 186 | 0.63 (0.52) | 180 | 0.61 (0.48) | 0.538 |
MUICCRE (μg/g) | 366 | 294 (181) | 186 | 309 (181) | 180 | 287 (203) | 0.059 |
Low | 86 | 148 (47) | 31 | 131 (73) | 55 | 152 (37) | 0.083 |
Adequate | 280 | 341 (165) | 155 | 348 (187) | 125 | 336 (146) | 0.893 |
Outcome | n | Mean ± SD | n | Mean ± SD | n | Mean ± SD | p 1 |
FSIQ | 366 | 107.46 ± 13.75 | 186 | 105.25 ± 14.90 | 180 | 109.75 ± 12.09 | 0.002 |
Variable | B | SE(B) | p |
---|---|---|---|
MUFCRE (mg/g) | −5.89 | 1.85 | 0.002 |
MUICCRE (μg/g) | −0.03 | 0.01 | 0.023 |
Sex | −3.09 | 2.17 | 0.155 |
MUFCRE × MUICCRE | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.042 |
MUFCRE × Sex | 8.51 | 2.40 | <0.001 |
MUICCRE × Sex | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.042 |
MUFCRE × MUICCRE × Sex | −0.04 | 0.02 | 0.019 |
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Goodman, C.V.; Hall, M.; Green, R.; Chevrier, J.; Ayotte, P.; Martinez-Mier, E.A.; McGuckin, T.; Krzeczkowski, J.; Flora, D.; Hornung, R.; Lanphear, B.; Till, C. Iodine Status Modifies the Association between Fluoride Exposure in Pregnancy and Preschool Boys’ Intelligence. Nutrients 2022, 14, 2920. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14142920
Goodman CV, Hall M, Green R, Chevrier J, Ayotte P, Martinez-Mier EA, McGuckin T, Krzeczkowski J, Flora D, Hornung R, Lanphear B, Till C. Iodine Status Modifies the Association between Fluoride Exposure in Pregnancy and Preschool Boys’ Intelligence. Nutrients. 2022; 14(14):2920. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14142920
Chicago/Turabian StyleGoodman, Carly V., Meaghan Hall, Rivka Green, Jonathan Chevrier, Pierre Ayotte, Esperanza Angeles Martinez-Mier, Taylor McGuckin, John Krzeczkowski, David Flora, Richard Hornung, Bruce Lanphear, and Christine Till. 2022. "Iodine Status Modifies the Association between Fluoride Exposure in Pregnancy and Preschool Boys’ Intelligence" Nutrients 14, no. 14: 2920. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14142920