Gluten-Free Cereals and Pseudocereals as a Potential Source of Exposure to Toxic Elements among Polish Residents
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample Collection
2.2. Microwave Digestion of Samples
2.3. Toxic Elements Determination
2.3.1. Mercury
2.3.2. Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead
2.3.3. Accuracy Check of the Methods
2.4. Participants
2.4.1. Questionnaire
2.4.2. Health Risk Assessment
2.5. Comparison of Results with European Regulations
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Arsenic
4.2. Cadmium
4.3. Lead
4.4. Mercury
4.5. Health Risk
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Type of Product | As µg/kg | Cd µg/kg | Hg µg/kg | Pb µg/kg |
---|---|---|---|---|
X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | |
Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | |
Buckwheat groats (n = 17) | 3.24 ± 3.57 (0–14.77) | 55.85 ± 19.10 (27.94–91.84) | 0.70 ± 0.44 (0.23–1.67) | 34.91 ± 27.50 (4.57–110.32) |
2.54 (0–4.74) | 53.60 (43.73–71.04) | 0.53 (0.38–0.91) | 38.03 (13.65–49.62) | |
Expanded buckwheat (n = 7) | 44.84 ± 78.04 (0–206.49) | 32.44 ± 10.84 (22.22–49.31) | 1.44 ± 1.08 (0.85–3.88) | 27.02 ± 50.86 (0–141.60) |
4.72 (4.14–88.87) | 27.23 (24.02–43.96) | 1.12 (0.97–1.15) | 9.577 (0.42–15.72) | |
Flakes (n = 9) | 2.98 ± 2.09 (0–5.84) | 45.09 ± 24.22 (10.70–84.33) | 1.91 ± 2.80 (0.42–9.34) | 28.62 ± 16.03 (11.47–48.27) |
3.54 (1.99–4.65) | 48.27 (26.67–52.92) | 1.16 (0.94–1.27) | 17.02 (15.82–43.99) | |
Flour (n = 12) | 3.77 ± 4.69 (0–17.12) | 43.21 ± 30.91 (0–126.34) | 1.74 ± 3.20 (0.33–11.50) | 66.70 ± 114.69 (14.69–423.42) |
3.79 (0–4.75) | 32.00 (22.82–52.36) | 0.56 (0.45–63.87) | 19.28 (17.69–63.97) | |
Pasta (n = 7) | 7.82 ± 7.75 (2.37–24.42) | 37.22 ± 12.17 (22.55–56.55) | 1.22 ± 0.64 (0.43–2.40) | 25.91 ± 14.72 (14.57–47.85) |
5.11 (2.44–9.92) | 35.12 (28.93–50.26) | 1.14 (0.82–1.63) | 18.58 (17.04–46.84) | |
Roasted buckwheat groats (n = 9) | 2.77 ± 2.29 (0–5.28) | 65.36 ± 20.52 (33.57–100.60) | 1.67 ± 2.06 (0.29–6.05) | 15.56 ± 15.59 (4.12–56.59) |
4.16 (0–4.71) | 64.48 (61.70–74.77) | 0.68 (0.33–2.20) | 11.89 (10.23–11.99) | |
Total (n = 61) | 8.53 ± 28.28 (0–206.49) | 48.35 ± 23.31 (10.70–126.34) | 1.37 ± 1.98 (0.23–11.50) | 35.44 ± 56.93 (0–423.42) |
4.13 (1.82–4.90) | 45.62 (28.93–61.70) | 0.85 (0.46–1.17) | 17.04 (11.99–46.84) |
Type of Product | As µg/kg | Cd µg/kg | Hg µg/kg | Pb µg/kg |
---|---|---|---|---|
X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | |
Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | |
Cakes (n = 9) | 5.43 ± 6.58 (0–21.68) | 11.20 ± 11.66 (3.43–39.76) | 1.02 ± 0.63 (0.30–2.36) | 73.70 ± 6.78 (66.0–87.64) |
2.55 (2.20–7.40) | 7.12 (5.26–8.34) | 0.90 (0.57–1.16) | 74.53 (68.81–75.96) | |
Maize groats (n = 10) | 10.27 ± 9.03 (2.40–30.68) | 35.70 ± 15.32 (21.44–49.19) | 0.88 ± 0.76 (0.25–2.45) | 56.24 ± 24.62 (39.46–112.57) |
8.37 (4.04–12.22) | 33.89 (21.44–49.19) | 0.62 (0.31–1.24) | 47.70 (40.62–60.65) | |
Crisps (n = 13) | 2.63 ± 3.04 (0–11.28) | 7.32 ± 3.38 (3.57–15.12) | 1.80 ± 1.31 (0.43–4.27) | 80.80 ± 24.41 (44.56–140.95) |
1.99 (0–3.62) | 7.52 (4.62–8.24) | 1.22 (0.92–2.42) | 75.26 (64.84–89.66) | |
Flour (n = 11) | 3.39 ± 2.23 (1.66–9.33) | 5.30 ± 2.33 (1.66–9.69) | 0.62 ± 0.63 (0.20–2.44) | 65.04 ± 19.37 (34.92–93.17) |
2.79 (1.78–4.03) | 5.53 (3.76–6.60) | 0.42 (0.26–0.69) | 64.36 (51.35–78.38) | |
Pasta (n = 8) | 2.48 ± 1.83 (0–5.03) | 6.33 ± 4.10 (2.90–15.17) | 0.56 ± 0.61 (0.14–2.00) | 74.34 ± 13.37 (60.05–96.52) |
2.38 (1.05–3.95) | 5.11 (3.40–7.80) | 0.40 (0.20–0.57) | 70.22 (63.68–85.17) | |
Popcorn (n = 7) | 4.66 ± 4.38 (0–10.74) | 3.68 ± 2.21 (0–6.24) | 2.34 ± 0.89 (1.16–3.88) | 99.80 ± 22.34 (53.73–117.09) |
3.82 (0–10.36) | 4.03 (1.91–5.37) | 2.0 (1.92–3.09) | 106.65 (88.52–114.70) | |
Total (n = 59) | 3.63 ± 3.62 (0–21.69) | 7.11 ± 7.37 (3.63–7.52) | 1.11 ± 1.04 (0.09–4.27) | 74.52 ± 24.02 (18.98–140.95) |
2.30 (1.66–4.12) | 5.37 (3.62–7.52) | 0.71 (0.40–1.47) | 73.47 (61.97–87.83) |
Type of Product | As µg/kg | Cd µg/kg | Hg µg/kg | Pb µg/kg |
---|---|---|---|---|
X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | |
Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | |
Expanded millet groats (n = 6) | 13.82 ± 17.04 (0–40.54) | 32.44 ± 10.84 (22.22–49.31) | 1.44 ± 1.08 (0.85–3.88) | 27.03 ± 50.86 (0–141.60) |
4.72 (4.14–88.87) | 27.23 (24.02–43.96) | 1.12 (0.97–1.15) | 9.56 (0.42–15.72) | |
Flakes (n = 15) | 4.97 ± 3.29 (2.28–15.95) | 35.00 ± 22.23 (7.22–68.80) | 0.77 ± 0.64 (0.33–2.61) | 58.04 ± 64.43 (20.67–281.32) |
4.39 (3.57–4.57) | 25.02 (18.21–59.32) | 0.46 (0.40–0.96) | 33.07 (26.39–65.91) | |
Flour (n = 8) | 5.61 ± 4.25 (1.77–14.71) | 55.30 ± 25.03 (13.64–76.99) | 0.52 ± 0.23 (0.01–0.71) | 72.76 ± 22.96 (20.59–91.95) |
4.38 (2.47–7.34) | 65.65 (34.65–75.56) | 0.58 (0.46–0.68) | 76.89 (69.24–88.64) | |
Millet groats (n = 18) | 4.93 ± 2.24 (0–9.58) | 24.55 ± 16.81 (5.70–70.92) | 0.64 ± 0.49 (0.12–1.58) | 58.48 ± 96.27 (20.67–436.83) |
4.66 (4.19–5.69) | 20.74 (10.89–33.89) | 0.45 (0.29–1.09) | 24.47 (21.66–57.51) | |
Total (n = 47) | 6.19 ± 6.95 (0–40.54) | 33.14 ± 23.92 (5.70–83.71) | 0.76 ± 0.61 (0.01–2.77) | 57.56 ± 70.10 (19.74–436.83) |
4.55 (3.57–5.69) | 22.86 (15.18–53.04) | 0.55 (0.40–1.09) | 32.90 (23.59–68.15) |
Type of Product | As µg/kg | Cd µg/kg | Hg µg/kg | Pb µg/kg |
---|---|---|---|---|
X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | |
Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | |
Bran (n = 6) | 10.11 ± 4.93 (5.46–18.27) | 60.49 ± 45.64 (6.48–138.83) | 1.07 ± 0.39 (0.51–1.66) | 56.93 ± 15.96 (38.22–78.62) |
8.29 (6.65–13.69) | 50.40 (34.58–68.44) | 1.11 (0.83–1.23) | 56.23 (43.86–68.43) | |
Flakes (n = 22) | 10.20 ± 10.00 (1.78–44.11) | 27.74 ± 19.32 (1.05–73.22) | 1.11 ± 0.85 (0.19–3.57) | 47.00 ± 8.88 (18.99–58.26) |
8.12 (2.57–12.84) | 21.83 (15.74–31.02) | 0.99 (0.42–1.38) | 49.14 (18.99–58.26) | |
Flour (n = 9) | 10.12 ± 3.68 (4.21–15.20) | 19.98 ± 9.64 (10.11–41.67) | 0.57 ± 0.35 (0.13–1.2) | 56.74 ± 13.76 (40.97–86.60) |
10.51 (7.88–12.13) | 19.93 (12.67–23.63) | 0.47 (0.30–0.80) | 55.44 (46.34–61.31) | |
Oat groats (n = 8) | 10.27 ± 9.04 (2.40–30.68) | 24.54 ± 16.81 (5.70–70.92) | 0.88 ± 0.76 (0.25–2.45) | 56.25 ± 24.63 (39.46–112.58) |
8.37 (0–3.70) | 20.74 (21.44–49.19) | 0.62 (0.31–1.24) | 47.70 (40.62–60.65) | |
Total (n = 45) | 10.19 ± 8.12 (1.78–44.11) | 31.97 ± 24.92 (1.05–138.83) | 0.96 ± 0.72 (0.13–3.57) | 51.92 ± 0.72 (18.99–112.58) |
8.67 (4.49–12.84) | 22.06 (17.94–41.67) | 0.83 (0.42–1.20) | 49.89 (43.07–55.09) |
Type of Product | As µg/kg | Cd µg/kg | Hg µg/kg | Pb µg/kg |
---|---|---|---|---|
X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | X ± SD (Min–Max) | |
Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | Me (Q1–Q3) | |
Black quinoa (n = 7) | 7.09 ± 2.69 (4.13–9.88) | 22.90 ± 5.15 (17.25–32.12) | 1.54 ± 0.79 (0.44–2.45) | 54.04 ± 8.80 (34.26–58.37) |
8.66 (4.28–9.28) | 22.69 (18.33–25.92) | 1.86 (0.58–2.13) | 57.71 (55.28–58.28) | |
Red quinoa (n = 7) | 6.86 ± 2.22 (4.09–9.33) | 24.57 ± 5.56 (17.22–31.10) | 1.58 ± 0.68 (0.81–2.70) | 53.60 ± 8.38 (34.75–58.35) |
7.80 (4.64–9.04) | 24.95 (17.73–30.66) | 1.57 (0.90–2.05) | 56.39 (55.30–57.62) | |
Tricolor quinoa (n = 5) | 9.10 ± 4.02 (5.31–15.95) | 27.88 ± 4.55 (5.31–15.95) | 0.72 ± 0.67 (0.34–1.92) | 55.50 ± 1.12 (54.25–57.30) |
8.13 (7.65–8.45) | 8.13 (7.65–8.45) | 0.42 (0.41–0.49) | 55.26 (55.07–55.59) | |
White quinoa (n = 11) | 9.94 ± 10.07 (1.98–38.15) | 32.20 ± 11.86 (10.03–53.44) | 0.55 ± 0.19 (0.24–0.99) | 53.46 ± 8.31 (37.69–65.62) |
7.46 (4.10–10.05) | 33.72 (24.69–41.01) | 0.52 (0.47–0.61) | 54.55 (53.76–55.42) | |
Total (n = 30) | 8.41 ± 6.45 (1.98–38.15) | 27.53 ± 8.88 (10.03–53.44) | 1.05 ± 0.73 (0.24–2.70) | 53.97 ± 7.42 (34.26–65.62) |
7.90 (4.32–9.28) | 25.50 (22.69–32.12) | 0.70 (0.48–1.86) | 55.36 (54.33–57.62) |
Type of Product | Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
As | Cd | Hg | Pb | ∑THQ 1 | |
Buckwheat groats | 4.03 × 10−4 | 2.09 × 10−3 | 1 × 10−4 | 3.7 × 10−4 | 2.95 × 10−3 |
Roasted buckwheat groats | 4.96 × 10−4 | 3.51 × 10−3 | 3 × 10−4 | 2.4 × 10−4 | 4.55 × 10−3 |
Millet groats | 9.21 × 10−4 | 1.38 × 10−3 | 1.2 × 10−4 | 9.4 × 10−4 | 3.35 × 10−3 |
Millet flakes | 9.37 × 10−4 | 1.98 × 10−3 | 1.5 × 10−4 | 9.4 × 10−4 | 4 × 10−3 |
Popcorn | 7.95 × 10−4 | 1.9 × 10−4 | 4 × 10−4 | 1.46 × 10−3 | 2.84 × 10−3 |
Oat flakes | 8.08 × 10−3 | 6.59 × 10−3 | 8.8 × 10−4 | 3.10 × 10−3 | 1.87 × 10−2 |
Cancer Risk (CR) | 3.7 × 10−7 | 6.8 × 10−5 | - | 1.5 × 10−7 | - |
Group of Products | Maize | Millet | Quinoa | Oat |
---|---|---|---|---|
Buckwheat | Cd 0.001, Pb 0.001 | Cd 0.01, Pb 0.001 | As 0.001, Cd 0.05, Pb 0.001 | As 0.001, Cd 0.01, Pb 0.001 |
Maize | - | As 0.01, Cd 0.001, Pb 0.001 | As 0.001, Cd 0.001, Pb 0.05 | As 0.001, Cd 0.001, Pb 0.001 |
Millet | As 0.01, Cd 0.001, Pb 0.001 | - | - | As 0.05 |
As | Cd | Pb | Hg |
---|---|---|---|
Buckwheat groats-Oat groats (0.05) | Buckwheat groats-Millet groats (0.01) | Expanded buckwheat-Expanded millet (0.05) | Buckwheat pasta-Corn pasta (0.05) |
Corn groats-Oat groats (0.05) | Buckwheat groats-Corn groats (0.001) | Buckwheat flakes-Oat flakes (0.05) | White quinoa-Red quinoa (0.05) |
Buckwheat flakes-Oat flakes (0.05) | Corn groats-Oat groats (0.05) | Buckwheat pasta-Corn pasta (0.01) | Conventional buckwheat groats-Organic buckwheat groats (0.05) |
Buckwheat pasta-Corn pasta (0.05) | Buckwheat pasta-Corn pasta (0.01) | Buckwheat flour-Millet flour (0.05) | |
Buckwheat flour-Oat flour (0.01) | Buckwheat flour-Corn flour (0.001) | ||
Corn flour-Oat flour (0.01) | Millet flour-Corn flour (0.001) |
As | Cd | Hg | Pb |
---|---|---|---|
Maize: 60 µg/kg (30–1300 µg/kg) China [30] | Buckwheat: 50–285 µg/kg China [34] | Maize: 1.61 µg/kg (1.25–2.25 µg/kg) China [30] | Maize: 100 µg/kg (20 to 800 µg/kg) China [30] |
Maize: 14 µg/kg China [31] | Maize: 100 µg/kg China [31] | Maize: 1.4 µg/kg China [31] | Maize: 230 µg/kg China [31] |
Quinoa: 27 µg/kg Oat: 28 µg/kg Korea [32] | Quinoa: 49 µg/kg Oat: 13 µg/kg Korea [32] | Oat: <LOD Quinoa: <LOD Korea [32] | Oat: 44 µg/kg Quinoa: 31 µg/kg Korea [32] |
Quinoa: 150 µg/kg Argentina [33] | Quinoa: 40 µg/kg Argentina [33] | Maize: 0.55- 21.02 µg/kg China [41] | Quinoa: <LOQ Argentina [33] |
Quinoa:26 µg/kg [35] | Maize: 2218 µg/kg Millet: 2278 µg/kg Ghana [40] | ||
Quinoa: 90–190 µg/kg Buckwheat: 50–90 µg/kg Slovakia [36] | Quinoa: 330–560 µg/kg Buckwheat: 100–400 µg/kg Slovakia [36] | ||
Buckwheat: 190 µg/kg Turkey [38] | |||
Buckwheat: 790–4765 µg/kg China [34] | |||
Maize: 1154 µg/kg Nigeria [39] |
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Bielecka, J.; Markiewicz-Żukowska, R.; Puścion-Jakubik, A.; Grabia, M.; Nowakowski, P.; Soroczyńska, J.; Socha, K. Gluten-Free Cereals and Pseudocereals as a Potential Source of Exposure to Toxic Elements among Polish Residents. Nutrients 2022, 14, 2342. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14112342
Bielecka J, Markiewicz-Żukowska R, Puścion-Jakubik A, Grabia M, Nowakowski P, Soroczyńska J, Socha K. Gluten-Free Cereals and Pseudocereals as a Potential Source of Exposure to Toxic Elements among Polish Residents. Nutrients. 2022; 14(11):2342. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14112342
Chicago/Turabian StyleBielecka, Joanna, Renata Markiewicz-Żukowska, Anna Puścion-Jakubik, Monika Grabia, Patryk Nowakowski, Jolanta Soroczyńska, and Katarzyna Socha. 2022. "Gluten-Free Cereals and Pseudocereals as a Potential Source of Exposure to Toxic Elements among Polish Residents" Nutrients 14, no. 11: 2342. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14112342