A Focused Insight into Thyme: Biological, Chemical, and Therapeutic Properties of an Indigenous Mediterranean Herb
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris): An Overview
2.1. Systematic Classification and Distribution
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Subkingdom: Tracheobionta
- Superdivision: Spermatophyta
- Division: Magnoliophyta
- Class: Magnoliopsida
- Subclass: Asteridae
- Order: Lamiales
- Family: Lamiaceae
- Genus: Thymus L.
- Species: Thymus vulgaris L. [16]
2.2. Thyme Botanical Aspects
3. Chemical Composition and Essential Oils of Thyme
4. Thyme Nutritional Value and Health Benefits
5. Applications and Uses of Thyme in Food Industry
6. Biological Activity of Thyme
6.1. Antioxidant Activity
6.2. Anti-Inflammatory Activity
6.3. Antineoplastic Activity
6.4. Antibacterial Activity
6.5. Antifungal Activity
6.6. Antiviral Activity and Novel Findings in COVID-19
7. Innovative Perspective on Thyme
8. Limitations of the Review
9. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Component | Formula | Relative Concentration (%) |
---|---|---|
3-Hexanol | C6H12O | 0.10 |
α-Tujene | C10H16 | 1.52 |
α-Pinene | C10H16 | 1.31 |
Camphene | C10H16 | 0.75 |
Sabinene | C10H16 | 0.84 |
3-Otenol | C8H16O | 0.36 |
3-Otanone | C8H16O | 0.20 |
Β-Myrcene | C10H16 | 0.67 |
3-Otanol | C8H18O | 0.21 |
α-Pellandrene | C10H16 | 0.10 |
δ-3-Carene | C10H16 | 0.11 |
α-Terpinene | C10H16 | 2.36 |
ρ-Cymene | C10H14 | 7.61 |
Sylvestrene | C10H16 | 0.34 |
1,8-Cineol | C10H18O | 0.57 |
cis-Oimene | C10H16 | 0.22 |
β-Oimene | C10H16 | 0.20 |
ɤ-Terpinene | C10H16 | 9.50 |
cis-Sabinene | C10H8O | 0.10 |
Thymol | C10H14O | 54.26 |
Carvacrol | C10H14O | 4.42 |
Octadienoic acid | C18H12O | 0.10 |
Geranic acid | C10H16O2 | 0.30 |
Principle | Nutrient Value per 100 g of Fresh Leaves | Percentage of RDA |
---|---|---|
Niacin | 1.824 mg | 11% |
Pantothenic acid | 0.409 mg | 8% |
Pyridoxine | 0.348 mg | 27% |
Riboflavin | 0.471 mg | 36% |
Thiamin | 0.48 mg | 4% |
Vitamin-A | 4751 IU | 158% |
Vitamin-C | 160.1 mg | 266% |
Sodium | 9 mg | 0.5% |
Potassium | 609 mg | 13% |
Calcium | 405 mg | 40.5% |
Iron | 17.45 mg | 218% |
Magnesium | 160 mg | 40% |
Manganese | 106 mg | 15% |
Zinc | 1.81 mg | 16.5% |
Carotene-β | 2851 mg | - |
Biological Activity of Thyme | Major Findings | Reference |
---|---|---|
Antioxidant | Use of waste thyme extract for preventing the formation of lipid oxidation products in oil in water emulsions, constituted by diverse proportions of wheat and almond oils | [34] |
Antioxidant efficacy of thymol and carvacrol in microencapsulated walnut oil triacylglycerols | [39] | |
Effects of thymol and carvacrol on sperm quality and oxidant/antioxidant balance in rats | [41] | |
Effectiveness of thymol on the growth performance, antioxidant status of the meat and the immunity of Nile tilapia fingerlings, Oreochromis niloticus | [43] | |
Anti-inflammatory | Use of unfractionated essential oil from Thymus vulgaris to reduce neutrophil infiltration during an inflammatory response in zebrafish embryos | [45] |
Effectiveness of thyme extract oils in reducing the production and gene expression of proinflammatory mediators and increasing anti-inflammatory IL-10 cytokine secretion in activated macrophages | [48] | |
Ability of Greek Thymus vulgaris oil and water extracts to detoxify lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation | [49] | |
In vivo anti-inflammatory activities of Thymus vulgaris essential oils by significantly reducing carrageenan-induced paw edema in mice | [52] | |
Anticancer | Anticancer activities of Thymus vulgaris L. in experimental breast carcinoma in vivo and in vitro | [68] |
Cytotoxic, genotoxic, apoptotic, and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-generating effects of carvacrol on gastric adenocarcinoma in vitro | [72] | |
Chemopreventive effect of thymol against dimethylhydrazine and/or high fat diet-induced colon cancer in rats | [74] | |
Effectiveness of carvacrol in inhibiting cell proliferation and migration in non-small cell lung cancer cells | [80] | |
Antibacterial | Effectiveness of thyme essential oil against Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae | [90] |
Use of thyme oil nano-emulsions aided by ultrasound to decontaminate the surface of cherry tomatoes against Eschericia coli O157:H7 | [92] | |
Use of thyme essential oil to increase susceptibility to colistin in Nosocomial Acinetobacter baumannii and K. pneumoniae | [99] | |
Bacteriostatic and biofilm inhibitory properties of thyme nanogel against genetically identified skin bacterial clinical isolates (Pseudomonas stutzeri, Enterococcus faecium and Bacillus thuringiensis) | [105] | |
Antifungal | Fungistatic and fungicidal activity of thyme essential oil against Candida albicans | [112] |
Activity of thyme oil and thymol alone or in combination with antifungal drugs as antibiofilm agents against resistant strains of C. albicans and Candida tropicalis | [114] | |
Antifungal control of thyme essential oil on Aspergillus flavus and reduction in aflatoxin B1 production, by exerting changes at the molecular level and inducing significant apoptotic-like cell death | [120] | |
Activity of thyme essential oil against clinical dermatophytes from the two primary genera Microsporum and Trichophyton | [125] | |
Antiviral | Antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) by extracts or essential oil of thyme, via decreasing infectivity of the virus particles | [128] |
Dose-dependent anti-influenza activity of thyme extract in Madin Darby canine kidney (MDCK) and HeLa Ohio cells | [129] | |
Active interference with Tat protein in HIV, needed in transcription, by the essential oil of thyme | [131] | |
Antiviral efficacy of thyme essential oil against feline coronaviruses in vitro, through inhibiting viral replication and reducing viral titer | [133] | |
Inhibitory effect of thymol and carvacrol on the spike protein of SARS-CoV2 | [135] |
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Hammoudi Halat, D.; Krayem, M.; Khaled, S.; Younes, S. A Focused Insight into Thyme: Biological, Chemical, and Therapeutic Properties of an Indigenous Mediterranean Herb. Nutrients 2022, 14, 2104. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14102104
Hammoudi Halat D, Krayem M, Khaled S, Younes S. A Focused Insight into Thyme: Biological, Chemical, and Therapeutic Properties of an Indigenous Mediterranean Herb. Nutrients. 2022; 14(10):2104. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14102104
Chicago/Turabian StyleHammoudi Halat, Dalal, Maha Krayem, Sanaa Khaled, and Samar Younes. 2022. "A Focused Insight into Thyme: Biological, Chemical, and Therapeutic Properties of an Indigenous Mediterranean Herb" Nutrients 14, no. 10: 2104. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14102104