Evaluation of the Food Choice Motives before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study of 1232 Adults from Croatia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Study Population
2.2. Ethical Issues
2.3. Measures and Outcomes
2.3.1. Socio-Demographic, COVID-19, and Anthropometric Data
2.3.2. Food Choice Questionnaire
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Study Limitations and Strengths
4.2. Perspectives for the Future Studies
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Total (n = 1232) | Women (n = 890) | Men (n = 339) | p |
---|---|---|---|---|
Socio-demographic characteristics | ||||
Age (years), mean (SD) | 35.4 (10.35) | 35.2 (10.43) | 35.8 (10.15) | 0.377 e |
Educational level a, n (%) | ||||
Secondary/high school or less | 253 (20.5) | 177 (19.8) | 76 (22.4) | 0.804 f |
Bachelor’s degree | 197 (16.0) | 143 (16.1) | 54 (15.9) | |
Master’s degree | 598 (48.5) | 436 (49.0) | 160 (47.2) | |
Doctorate degree | 184 (14.9) | 134 (15.1) | 49 (14.5) | |
Employment status, n (%) | ||||
Employed | 1019 (82.7) | 723 (81.2) | 294 (86.7) | <0.001 f |
Unemployed | 69 (5.6) | 52 (5.8) | 17 (5.0) | |
Retired | 19 (1.5) | 13 (1.5) | 6 (1.8) | |
Student | 125 (10.1) | 102 (11.5) | 22 (6.5) | |
Working in or being closely related to the healthcare system b, n (%) | 268 (26.4) | 212 (29.4) | 55 (18.8) | <0.001 f |
Marital status, n (%) | ||||
Unmarried | 605 (49.1) | 438 (49.2) | 165 (48.7) | 0.492 g |
Married | 567 (46.0) | 404 (45.4) | 162 (47.8) | |
Divorced | 52 (4.2) | 40 (4.5) | 12 (3.5) | |
Widowed | 8 (0.6) | 8 (0.9) | 0 (0.0) | |
Residential area, n (%) | ||||
Urban area (city) | 1091 (88.6) | 782 (87.9) | 306 (90.3) | 0.280 g |
Rural area (countryside) | 141 (11.4) | 108 (12.1) | 33 (9.7) | |
Average monthly net income c, n (%) | ||||
No independent income | 98 (8.0) | 84 (9.4) | 14 (4.1) | <0.001 f |
Lower than the minimum net salary | 65 (5.3) | 54 (6.1) | 10 (2.9) | |
Between minimum and average net salary | 369 (30.0) | 302 (33.9) | 66 (19.5) | |
Higher than the average net salary | 700 (56.8) | 450 (50.6) | 249 (73.5) | |
Information on COVID-19 | ||||
COVID-19 infection, n (%) | ||||
Yes | 342 (27.8) | 228 (25.6) | 114 (33.6) | 0.005 f |
No | 890 (72.2) | 662 (74.4) | 225 (66.4) | |
Method used for virus infection confirmation in those who tested positive d, n (%) | ||||
PCR test | 195 (57.4) | 126 (55.8) | 69 (60.5) | 0.761 f |
Rapid antigen test | 52 (15.3) | 35 (15.5) | 17 (14.9) | |
Serology test | 29 (8.5) | 19 (8.4) | 10 (8.8) | |
Not confirmed by any of the above-mentioned methods | 64 (18.8) | 46 (20.4) | 18 (15.8) | |
COVID-19 vaccination, n (%) | ||||
Yes | 632 (51.3) | 445 (50.0) | 187 (55.2) | 0.106 f |
No | 600 (48.7) | 445 (50.0) | 152 (44.8) | |
Self-isolation due to COVID-19 preventive measures, n (%) | ||||
Yes | 484 (39.3) | 339 (38.1) | 144 (42.5) | 0.159 f |
No | 748 (60.7) | 551 (61.9) | 195 (57.5) | |
Confirmed COVID-19 infection in members of the household, n (%) | ||||
Yes | 453 (36.8) | 313 (35.2) | 138 (40.7) | 0.071 f |
No | 779 (63.2) | 577 (64.8) | 201 (59.3) | |
Anthropometric data | ||||
BW (kg), mean (SD) | 72.2 (16.15) | 66.2 (12.60) | 87.9 (13.70) | <0.001 e |
BH (cm), mean (SD) | 172.9 (8.92) | 169.0 (6.13) | 183.0 (6.98) | <0.001 e |
BMI (kg/m2), n (%) | ||||
Underweight (BMI < 18.5 kg/m2) | 41 (3.3) | 39 (4.4) | 2 (0.6) | <0.001 f |
Normal BW (18.5–24.9 kg/m2) | 769 (62.4) | 630 (70.8) | 138 (40.7) | |
Overweight (25.0–29.9 kg/m2) | 315 (25.6) | 158 (17.8) | 155 (45.7) | |
Obesity (≥30.0 kg/m2) | 107 (8.7) | 63 (7.1) | 44 (13.0) |
Items a | Before COVID-19 Pandemic | During COVID-19 Pandemic | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Loading | Loading besides Original (>0.50 on Other Factors) | α | Loading | Loading besides Original (>0.50 on Other Factors) | α | |
Health | ||||||
29. Keeps me healthy | 0.806 | 0.92 | 0.781 | 0.93 | ||
30. Is good for my skin/teeth/hair/nail, etc. | 0.756 | 0.742 | ||||
22. Contains a lot of vitamins and minerals | 0.749 | 0.781 | ||||
10. Is nutritious | 0.654 | 0.665 | ||||
9. Is high in fiber and roughage | 0.634 | 0.684 | ||||
27. Is high in protein | 0.606 | 0.627 | ||||
Mood | ||||||
26. Helps me relax | 0.711 | 0.90 | 0.809 | 0.93 | ||
34. Helps me to cope with life | 0.704 | 0.738 | ||||
16. Helps me cope with stress | 0.675 | 0.800 | ||||
31. Makes me feel good | 0.540 | 0.537 Health | 0.592 | |||
24. Keeps me awake/alert | 0.449 | 0.590 | ||||
13. Cheers me up | 0.447 | 0.559 S. Appeal | 0.732 | |||
Convenience | ||||||
28. Takes no time to prepare | 0.781 | 0.89 | 0.813 | 0.92 | ||
15. Can be cooked very simply | 0.747 | 0.779 | ||||
1. Is easy to prepare | 0.697 | 0.761 | ||||
35. Can be bought in shops close to where I live or work | 0.486 | 0.563 | ||||
11. Is easily available in shops and supermarkets | 0.466 | 0.562 | ||||
Sensory Appeal | ||||||
14. Smells nice | 0.700 | 0.83 | 0.718 | 0.88 | ||
4. Tastes good | 0.511 | 0.544 | ||||
18. Has a pleasant texture | 0.465 | 0.531 | ||||
25. Looks nice | 0.405 | 0.557 | ||||
Ethical Concern | ||||||
20. Comes from countries I approve of politically | 0.609 | 0.75 | 0.626 | 0.73 | ||
19. Is packaged in environmentally friendly way | 0.597 | 0.560 | ||||
32. Has a country of origin clearly marked | 0.541 | 0.557 | ||||
Price | ||||||
36. Is cheap | 0.813 | 0.79 | 0.764 | 0.82 | ||
6. Is not expensive | 0.736 | 0.747 | ||||
12. Is good value for money | 0.317 | 0.358 | ||||
Weight Control | ||||||
3. Is low in calories | 0.619 | 0.79 | 0.684 | 0.85 | ||
7. Is low in fat | 0.581 | 0.664 | ||||
17. Helps me control my weight | 0.484 | 0.547 | ||||
Familiarity | ||||||
33. Is what I usually eat | 0.622 | 0.69 | 0.694 | 0.78 | ||
8. Is familiar | 0.611 | 0.636 | ||||
21. Is like the food I ate when I was a child | 0.180 | 0.271 | ||||
Natural Content | ||||||
2. Contains no additives | 0.431 | 0.86 | 0.442 | 0.568 Health | 0.89 | |
5. Contains natural ingredients | 0.377 | 0.670 Health | 0.301 | 0.700 Health | ||
23. Contains no artificial ingredients | 0.298 | 0.566 Health | 0.223 | 0.661 Health |
Items a | Total Sample (n = 1232) | Women (n = 890) | Men (n = 339) | Women vs. Men before COVID-19 Pandemic | Women vs. Men during COVID-19 Pandemic | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Before COVID-19 Pandemic Mean (SD) | During COVID-19 Pandemic Mean (SD) | Before COVID-19 Pandemic Mean (SD) | During COVID-19 Pandemic Mean (SD) | pb | Before COVID-19 Pandemic Mean (SD) | During COVID-19 Pandemic Mean (SD) | pb | pc | pc | |
Factor 1—Health | ||||||||||
22. Contains a lot of vitamins and minerals | 3.87 (1.015) | 3.92 (1.004) | 3.95 (0.995) | 4.01 (0.954) | 0.010 | 3.65 (1.039) | 3.69 (1.091) | 0.334 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
29. Keeps me healthy | 4.11 (0.965) | 4.10 (0.967) | 4.19 (0.936) | 4.19 (0.931) | 0.777 | 3.91 (1.015) | 3.87 (1.023) | 0.355 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
10. Is nutritious | 3.99 (0.981) | 4.08 (0.934) | 4.04 (0.951) | 4.16 (0.902) | <0.001 | 3.84 (1.044) | 3.86 (0.982) | 0.534 | 0.001 | <0.001 |
27. Is high in protein | 3.65 (1.022) | 3.74 (1.028) | 3.64 (1.021) | 3.74 (1.019) | <0.001 | 3.67 (1.028) | 3.73 (1.058) | 0.067 | 0.655 | 0.969 |
30. Is good for my shin/teeth/hair/nail, etc. | 3.87 (1.065) | 3.93 (1.049) | 3.97 (1.038) | 4.05 (1.001) | <0.001 | 3.61 (1.092) | 3.61 (1.102) | 0.929 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
9. Is high in fiber and roughage | 3.56 (1.024) | 3.71 (1.011) | 3.62 (0.987) | 3.80 (0.987) | <0.001 | 3.40 (1.103) | 3.49 (1.039) | 0.032 | 0.001 | <0.001 |
Factor 2—Mood | ||||||||||
16. Helps me cope with stress | 3.11 (1.228) | 3.22 (1.210) | 3.19 (1.219) | 3.27 (1.204) | 0.005 | 2.92 (1.230) | 3.09 (1.220) | <0.001 | 0.001 | 0.022 |
34. Helps me to cope with life | 3.00 (1.216) | 3.10 (1.225) | 3.00 (1.212) | 3.14 (1.234) | <0.001 | 2.97 (1.227) | 3.00 (1.200) | 0.404 | 0.634 | 0.081 |
26. Helps me relax | 3.17 (1.125) | 3.25 (1.176) | 3.19 (1.124) | 3.29 (1.171) | <0.001 | 3.11 (1.125) | 3.12 (1.182) | 0.947 | 0.293 | 0.018 |
24. Keeps me awake/alert | 3.37 (1.123) | 3.38 (1.150) | 3.43 (1.123) | 3.45 (1.149) | 0.447 | 3.20 (1.110) | 3.17 (1.129) | 0.530 | 0.001 | <0.001 |
13. Cheers me up | 3.72 (1.108) | 3.47 (1.139) | 3.75 (1.101) | 3.52 (1.128) | <0.001 | 3.66 (1.126) | 3.35 (1.160) | <0.001 | 0.212 | 0.016 |
31. Makes me feel good | 3.83 (1.060) | 3.74 (1.098) | 3.89 (1.043) | 3.81 (1.082) | 0.002 | 3.66 (1.091) | 3.56 (1.122) | 0.018 | 0.001 | <0.001 |
Factor 3—Convenience | ||||||||||
1. Is easy to prepare | 3.93 (1.027) | 3.97 (1.010) | 4.04 (0.972) | 4.07 (0.977) | 0.240 | 3.64 (1.112) | 3.71 (1.050) | 0.196 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
15. Can be cooked very simply | 3.88 (1.002) | 3.95 (0.989) | 3.99 (0.976) | 4.07 (0.945) | <0.001 | 3.60 (1.017) | 3.65 (1.041) | 0.174 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
28. Takes no time to prepare | 3.88 (1.003) | 3.90 (1.017) | 3.97 (0.975) | 4.02 (0.987) | 0.060 | 3.64 (1.037) | 3.59 (1.032) | 0.207 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
35. Can be bought in shops close to where I live or work | 3.69 (1.103) | 3.77 (1.106) | 3.77 (1.086) | 3.87 (1.091) | <0.001 | 3.48 (1.123) | 3.48 (1.100) | 0.940 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
11. Is easily available in shops and supermarkets | 3.83 (1.043) | 3.93 (1.004) | 3.89 (1.017) | 4.04 (0.958) | <0.001 | 3.64 (1.090) | 3.62 (1.060) | 0.632 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Factor 4—Sensory Appeal | ||||||||||
14. Smells nice | 3.85 (1.073) | 3.87 (1.031) | 3.93 (1.054) | 3.97 (1.008) | 0.173 | 3.65 (1.098) | 3.63 (1.053) | 0.724 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
25. Looks nice | 3.41 (1.118) | 3.59 (1.080) | 3.47 (1.127) | 3.66 (1.089) | <0.001 | 3.24 (1.078) | 3.40 (1.034) | <0.001 | 0.002 | <0.001 |
18. Has a pleasant texture | 3.69 (1.059) | 3.71 (1.049) | 3.76 (1.047) | 3.80 (1.034) | 0.130 | 3.49 (1.067) | 3.47 (1.050) | 0.568 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
4. Tastes good | 4.46 (0.890) | 4.22 (0.917) | 4.52 (0.846) | 4.30 (0.881) | <0.001 | 4.30 (0.983) | 4.00 (0.976) | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Factor 5—Natural Content | ||||||||||
2. Contains no additives | 3.53 (1.101) | 3.67 (1.090) | 3.60 (1.070) | 3.76 (1.053) | <0.001 | 3.35 (1.155) | 3.45 (1.148) | 0.035 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
5. Contains natural ingredients | 4.08 (0.947) | 4.01 (0.961) | 4.12 (0.928) | 4.07 (0.920) | 0.034 | 3.97 (0.977) | 3.84 (1.034) | 0.002 | 0.009 | <0.001 |
23. Contains no artificial ingredients | 3.71 (1.106) | 3.75 (1.092) | 3.78 (1.066) | 3.84 (1.038) | 0.011 | 3.52 (1.180) | 3.52 (1.185) | 1.000 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Factor 6—Price | ||||||||||
6. Is not expensive | 3.38 (1.090) | 3.48 (1.107) | 3.46 (1.093) | 3.56 (1.107) | <0.001 | 3.17 (1.054) | 3.25 (1.079) | 0.021 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
36. Is cheap | 3.02 (1.125) | 3.19 (1.188) | 3.08 (1.132) | 3.26 (1.189) | <0.001 | 2.84 (1.086) | 3.02 (1.171) | <0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 |
12. Is good value for money | 4.01 (1.017) | 4.00 (0.998) | 4.06 (0.990) | 4.06 (0.961) | 0.896 | 3.87 (1.079) | 3.81 (1.069) | 0.152 | 0.004 | <0.001 |
Factor 7—Weight Control | ||||||||||
3. Is low in calories | 3.06 (1.069) | 3.29 (1.067) | 3.07 (1.064) | 3.32 (1.040) | <0.001 | 3.03 (1.087) | 3.22 (1.136) | <0.001 | 0.579 | 0.139 |
17. Helps me control my weight | 3.46 (1.167) | 3.57 (1.113) | 3.50 (1.145) | 3.61 (1.087) | <0.001 | 3.37 (1.220) | 3.48 (1.180) | 0.012 | 0.105 | 0.087 |
7. Is low in fat | 3.17 (1.045) | 3.31 (1.072) | 3.19 (1.046) | 3.33 (1.067) | <0.001 | 3.14 (1.046) | 3.25 (1.087) | 0.012 | 0.541 | 0.228 |
Factor 8—Familiarity | ||||||||||
33. Is what I usually eat | 3.43 (1.080) | 3.45 (1.094) | 3.45 (1.088) | 3.48 (1.118) | 0.278 | 3.37 (1.058) | 3.35 (1.025) | 0.730 | 0.219 | 0.061 |
8. Is familiar | 3.48 (1.093) | 3.53 (1.040) | 3.49 (1.087) | 3.57 (1.043) | 0.007 | 3.47 (1.115) | 3.42 (1.027) | 0.346 | 0.745 | 0.026 |
21. Is like the food I ate when I was a child | 2.87 (1.197) | 3.00 (1.180) | 2.91 (1.196) | 3.04 (1.187) | <0.001 | 2.75 (1.191) | 2.88 (1.152) | 0.003 | 0.044 | 0.031 |
Factor 9—Ethical Concern | ||||||||||
20. Comes from countries I approve of politically | 2.18 (1.176) | 2.39 (1.227) | 2.23 (1.183) | 2.44 (1.240) | <0.001 | 2.04 (1.148) | 2.26 (1.184) | <0.001 | 0.009 | 0.023 |
32. Has the country of origin clearly marked | 3.29 (1.299) | 3.30 (1.312) | 3.37 (1.299) | 3.38 (1.318) | 0.878 | 3.06 (1.274) | 3.08 (1.267) | 0.641 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
19. Is packaged in an environmentally friendly way | 3.18 (1.154) | 3.24 (1.180) | 3.29 (1.118) | 3.33 (1.157) | 0.140 | 2.87 (1.191) | 3.00 (1.206) | 0.009 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Factors | Total Sample (n = 1232) | Women (n = 890) | Men (n = 339) | Women vs. Men before COVID-19 Pandemic | Women vs. Men during COVID-19 Pandemic | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Before COVID-19 Pandemic Mean (SD) | During COVID-19 Pandemic Mean (SD) | Before COVID-19 Pandemic Mean (SD) | During COVID-19 Pandemic Mean (SD) | pa | Before COVID-19 Pandemic Mean (SD) | During COVID-19 Pandemic Mean (SD) | pa | pb | pb | |
Health | 3.84 (0.856) | 3.91 (0.862) | 3.90 (0.836) | 3.99 (0.833) | <0.001 | 3.68 (0.887) | 3.71 (0.903) | 0.193 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Mood | 3.37 (0.928) | 3.36 (1.013) | 3.41 (0.919) | 3.41 (1.006) | 0.742 | 3.25 (0.942) | 3.21 (1.018) | 0.133 | 0.009 | 0.002 |
Convenience | 3.84 (0.858) | 3.90 (0.888) | 3.93 (0.833) | 4.01 (0.858) | <0.001 | 3.60 (0.878) | 3.61 (0.902) | 0.657 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Sensory Appeal | 3.85 (0.849) | 3.85 (0.877) | 3.92 (0.840) | 3.93 (0.860) | 0.479 | 3.67 (0.847) | 3.62 (0.884) | 0.091 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Natural Content | 3.77 (0.929) | 3.81 (0.947) | 3.83 (0.908) | 3.89 (0.904) | 0.002 | 3.61 (0.954) | 3.60 (1.014) | 0.733 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Price | 3.47 (0.905) | 3.56 (0.942) | 3.53 (0.899) | 3.63 (0.930) | <0.001 | 3.30 (0.900) | 3.36 (0.947) | 0.009 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Weight Control | 3.23 (0.917) | 3.39 (0.954) | 3.25 (0.911) | 3.42 (0.942) | <0.001 | 3.18 (0.937) | 3.32 (0.987) | <0.001 | 0.256 | 0.095 |
Familiarity | 3.26 (0.883) | 3.32 (0.921) | 3.28 (0.884) | 3.36 (0.925) | <0.001 | 3.20 (0.880) | 3.22 (0.902) | <0.001 | 0.123 | 0.012 |
Ethical Concern | 2.88 (0.992) | 2.97 (1.040) | 2.97 (0.991) | 3.05 (1.038) | <0.001 | 2.66 (0.961) | 2.78 (1.019) | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
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Sorić, T.; Brodić, I.; Mertens, E.; Sagastume, D.; Dolanc, I.; Jonjić, A.; Delale, E.A.; Mavar, M.; Missoni, S.; Peñalvo, J.L.; et al. Evaluation of the Food Choice Motives before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study of 1232 Adults from Croatia. Nutrients 2021, 13, 3165. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093165
Sorić T, Brodić I, Mertens E, Sagastume D, Dolanc I, Jonjić A, Delale EA, Mavar M, Missoni S, Peñalvo JL, et al. Evaluation of the Food Choice Motives before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study of 1232 Adults from Croatia. Nutrients. 2021; 13(9):3165. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093165
Chicago/Turabian StyleSorić, Tamara, Ivona Brodić, Elly Mertens, Diana Sagastume, Ivan Dolanc, Antonija Jonjić, Eva Anđela Delale, Mladen Mavar, Saša Missoni, José L. Peñalvo, and et al. 2021. "Evaluation of the Food Choice Motives before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study of 1232 Adults from Croatia" Nutrients 13, no. 9: 3165. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093165