The Sleep and Recovery Practices of Athletes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedure
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. EuroQoL (EQ-5D-5L)
2.3.2. Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI)
2.3.3. Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS)
2.3.4. The Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ Sport)
2.3.5. Athlete Morningness/Eveningness Questionnaire (AMES)
2.3.6. Consensus Sleep Diary—Core (CSD-C)
2.4. Supplementation
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participant Characteristics
3.1.1. EuroQoL
3.1.2. Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index
3.2. Epworth Sleepiness Scale
3.3. Recovery Stress Questionnaire
3.3.1. AMES
3.3.2. Consensus Sleep Diary—Core
3.3.3. Nutrition
4. Discussion
4.1. Sleep
4.2. Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index
4.3. Consensus Sleep Diary-Core
4.3.1. Daytime Sleepiness
4.3.2. Athlete Morningness/Eveningness
4.4. Recovery
4.4.1. EuroQoL
4.4.2. REST-Q Sport
4.5. Nutrition
4.6. Limitations
4.7. Future Research
4.8. Practical Applications
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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All (n = 338) | Elite (n = 115) | Sub-Elite (n = 223) | t/x2 Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | Male n = 203; Female n = 135 | Male n = 74; Female n = 41 | Male n = 129; Female n = 94 | X 2 = 1.72 |
Age * | 24.94 ± 5.93 | 23.44 ± 4.91 | 25.71 ± 6.27 | t = 3.384 |
Body mass (kg) | 72.95 ± 13.26 | 73.95 ± 12.55 | 72.44 ± 13.61 | t = −0.995 |
Height (cm) | 175.60 ± 9.70 | 176.6 ± 8.78 | 175.08 ± 10.12 | t = −1.361 |
Training (mins·wk) * | 675.12 ± 306.59 | 801.35 ± 338.81 | 610.02 ± 266.90 | t = −5.682 |
Sport | All | Elite n = 115 | Sub-Elite n = 223 |
---|---|---|---|
Athletics | 64 | 10 | 54 |
Boxing | 12 | 11 | 1 |
Gaelic games | 89 | 26 | 63 |
Hockey | 10 | 9 | 1 |
Rowing | 29 | 8 | 21 |
Rugby | 20 | 8 | 12 |
Sailing | 4 | 3 | 1 |
Soccer | 31 | 10 | 21 |
Swimming | 8 | 4 | 4 |
Other | 71 | 26 | 45 |
None | Slight | Moderate | Severe | Extreme | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mobility | Elite | 96 | 14 | 5 | ||
Sub-elite | 177 | 42 | 2 | 1 | 1 | |
Self-care | Elite | 113 | 1 | 1 | ||
Sub-elite | 214 | 7 | 2 | |||
Usual activities | Elite | 92 | 18 | 3 | 1 | 1 |
Sub-elite | 182 | 33 | 8 | |||
Pain | Elite | 62 | 47 | 6 | ||
Sub-elite | 107 | 102 | 14 | |||
Anxiety/Depression | Elite | 72 | 33 | 8 | 2 | |
Sub-elite | 150 | 58 | 13 | 2 |
Not during the Last Month | Less than Once per Week | Once or Twice per Week | Three or More Times per Week | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cannot get to sleep within 30 min | Elite Sub-elite | 40 99 | 24 56 | 27 82 | 34 48 |
Wake up in the middle of the night or early morning | Elite Sub-elite | 30 37 | 24 56 | 27 82 | 34 48 |
Have to get up to use the bathroom | Elite Sub-elite | 38 63 | 24 76 | 29 44 | 24 40 |
Cannot breathe comfortably | Elite Sub-elite | 101 192 | 11 16 | 1 10 | 2 5 |
Cough or snore loudly | Elite Sub-elite | 88 167 | 14 33 | 5 16 | 8 7 |
Feel too cold | Elite Sub-elite | 79 160 | 27 41 | 7 19 | 2 3 |
Feel too hot | Elite Sub-elite | 54 82 | 32 77 | 26 54 | 3 10 |
Have bad dreams | Elite Sub-elite | 63 114 | 34 75 | 16 27 | 2 7 |
Have pain | Elite Sub-elite | 81 152 | 22 48 | 11 19 | 1 4 |
Other reasons | Elite Sub-elite | 101 180 | 9 27 | 3 9 | 2 7 |
Problems staying awake | Elite Sub-elite | 66 125 | 29 66 | 13 27 | 7 5 |
Lack of enthusiasm | Elite Sub-elite | 35 50 | 29 81 | 37 69 | 14 23 |
Use of sleep medication | Elite Sub-elite | 104 189 | 5 18 | 3 7 | 3 9 |
Classification (ESS Score) | Elite (n = 115) | Sub-Elite (n = 223) |
---|---|---|
Low Normal (0–5) | 53 | 114 |
Higher Normal (6–10) | 45 | 70 |
Mild Excessive (11–12) | 6 | 20 |
Moderate Excessive (13–15) | 8 | 14 |
Severe (16–24) | 3 | 5 |
All (n = 338) | Elite (n = 115) | Sub-Elite (n = 223) | T= | p= | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
General Stress | 1.7 ± 1.31 | 1.77 ± 1.39 | 1.67 ± 1.26 | −0.6602 | 0.51 |
Emotional Stress | 1.95 ± 0.983 | 1.9 ± 0.98 | 1.97 ± 0.99 | 0.6858 | 0.493 |
Social Stress | 1.85 ± 1.03 | 1.83 ± 1.04 | 1.86 ± 1.02 | 0.2199 | 0.826 |
Conflicts/Pressure | 2.35 ± 1.24 | 2.24 ± 1.26 | 2.41 ± 1.24 | 1.1382 | 0.256 |
Fatigue | 2.52 ± 1.32 | 2.46 ± 1.32 | 2.55 ± 1.32 | 0.6125 | 0.541 |
Lack of Energy | 2 ± 1.06 | 1.95 ± 1.19 | 2.02 ± 1 | 0.5755 | 0.565 |
Physical Complaints | 1.61 ± 1.22 | 1.59 ± 1.34 | 1.61 ± 1.16 | 0.1638 | 0.87 |
Success | 2.85 ± 1 | 2.92 ± 1.01 | 2.81 ± 1 | −0.9189 | 0.359 |
Social Relaxation | 3.3 ± 1.28 | 3.19 ± 1.26 | 3.36 ± 1.29 | 1.1573 | 0.248 |
Physical Relaxation | 2.53 ± 1.06 | 2.59 ± 1.09 | 2.49 ± 1.04 | −0.8265 | 0.409 |
General Well-Being | 3.35 ± 1.16 | 3.37 ± 1.22 | 3.35 ± 1.13 | −0.1497 | 0.881 |
Sleep Quality | 2.81 ± 0.83 | 2.77 ± 0.78 | 2.83 ± 0.85 | 0.6552 | 0.513 |
Disturbed Breaks | 1.68 ± 0.92 | 1.71 ± 0.91 | 1.67 ± 0.94 | −0.4119 | 0.681 |
Burnout/Emotional Exhaustion | 1.83 ± 1.13 | 1.87 ± 1.22 | 1.81 ± 1.09 | −0.4695 | 0.639 |
Fitness/Injury | 2.43 ± 1.12 | 2.32 ± 1.17 | 2.48 ± 1.09 | 1.2827 | 0.2 |
Fitness/Being in Shape ** | 3.01 ± 1.06 | 3.22 ± 1.08 | 2.9 ± 1.04 | −2.6563 | 0.008 |
Burnout/Personal Accomplishment * | 2.82 ± 1.01 | 2.97 ± 1.04 | 2.74 ± 0.98 | −1.9984 | 0.048 |
Self-Efficacy ** | 2.94 ± 1.07 | 3.15 ± 1.12 | 2.83 ± 1.04 | −2.5747 | 0.01 |
Self-Regulation ** | 3.31 ± 1.2 | 3.55 ± 1.19 | 3.18 ± 1.18 | −2.7121 | 0.007 |
Chronotype Elite (n =) Sub-elite (n =) | Morning type | More morning type | More evening type | Evening type | |
24 45 | 40 84 | 36 65 | 15 29 | ||
Preferred training time | 6 a.m.–9 a.m. | 9 a.m.–Noon | Noon–3 p.m. | 3 p.m.–6 p.m. | 6 p.m.–9 p.m. |
Elite (n =) Sub-elite (n =) | 12 26 | 31 75 | 29 47 | 18 41 | 25 34 |
Preferred competition time * Elite (n =) Sub-elite (n =) | 6 a.m.–9 a.m. 5 12 | 9 a.m.–Noon 21 78 | Noon–3 p.m. 47 62 | 3 p.m.–6 p.m. 21 47 | 6 p.m.–9 p.m. 21 24 |
Time you usually get tired | 8 p.m.–9:30 p.m. | 9:31 p.m.–10:45 p.m. | 10:46 p.m.–12:30 a.m. | 12:30 a.m.–1:45 a.m. | 1:46 a.m.–3:00 a.m. |
Elite (n =) Sub-elite (n =) | 27 50 | 51 94 | 26 66 | 3 9 | 8 4 |
Sleep Measure | Training/Competition Day | Rest Day | |
---|---|---|---|
TIB (h) | Elite Sub-elite | 9.1 ± 1.18 9.2 ± 1.42 | 9.53 ± 1.49 9.6 ± 1.5 |
TST (h) | Elite Sub-elite | 8.01 ± 1.30 * 8.2 ± 1.38 * | 8.58 ± 1.4 8.59 ± 1.44 |
SL (Min) | Elite Sub-elite | 22.85 ± 20.74 22.65 ± 17.70 | 21.62 ± 18.7 23.72 ± 22.37 |
NoA (#) | Elite Sub-elite | 1.38 ± 1.43 1.51 ± 1.73 | 1.03 ± 1.17 * 1.52 ± 2.44 * |
WASO (Min) | Elite Sub-elite | 11.06 ± 17.06 10.14 ± 16.51 | 7.31 ± 9.99 9.56 ± 12.60 |
SE (%) | Elite Sub-elite | 88.2 ± 10.18 89.77 ± 7.14 | 90.21 ± 6.6 89.1 ± 7.05 |
Supplement | Frequency | Dose | Reason | Elite (n = 115) | Sub-Elite (n = 223) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Caffeine | Daily | 100 mg | Performance | 23 | 37 |
Creatine | Daily | Varied | Performance | 13 | 20 |
Fish Oil | Daily | 1 capsule | Health | 18 | 12 |
Iron | Daily | Varied | Anaemia/Performance | 4 | 10 |
Multivitamin | Daily | 1 capsule | Health | 24 | 32 |
Nitrate | Daily | 1 shot | Performance | 11 | 1 |
Probiotics | Daily | 1 capsule | Health | 13 | 25 |
Vitamin D | Daily | 1000–4000 IU | Health/Performance | 21 | 5 |
Whey | Daily | 25–40 g | Recovery | 22 | 48 |
Other (e.g., BCAA, beta—alanine, HMB, casein, antioxidants) | Daily/weekly | Varied | Health/Performance | 30 | 19 |
Sleep Quality | Disturbed Breaks | Emotional Exhaustion | Being in Shape | Self-Efficacy | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Supplement Use | −0.167 ** p = 0.002 | 0.119 * p = 0.029 | 0.137 * p = 0.012 | −0.114 * p = 0.036 | −0.108 * p = 0.048 |
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Doherty, R.; Madigan, S.M.; Nevill, A.; Warrington, G.; Ellis, J.G. The Sleep and Recovery Practices of Athletes. Nutrients 2021, 13, 1330. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13041330
Doherty R, Madigan SM, Nevill A, Warrington G, Ellis JG. The Sleep and Recovery Practices of Athletes. Nutrients. 2021; 13(4):1330. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13041330
Chicago/Turabian StyleDoherty, Rónán, Sharon M. Madigan, Alan Nevill, Giles Warrington, and Jason G. Ellis. 2021. "The Sleep and Recovery Practices of Athletes" Nutrients 13, no. 4: 1330. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13041330
APA StyleDoherty, R., Madigan, S. M., Nevill, A., Warrington, G., & Ellis, J. G. (2021). The Sleep and Recovery Practices of Athletes. Nutrients, 13(4), 1330. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13041330