Associations between Avocado Consumption and Diet Quality, Dietary Intake, Measures of Obesity and Body Composition in Adolescents: The Teen Food and Development Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participants
2.2. Measurements
2.2.1. Dietary and Avocado Intake
2.2.2. Diet Quality
2.2.3. Indicators of Obesity and Body Composition
2.3. Covariates
2.4. Data Analysis
2.5. Comparison of Diet Quality and Dietary Intake
2.6. Association between Avocado Intake and Anthropometric Indicators of Health
2.7. Determinants of Avocado Intake
3. Results
3.1. Diet Quality and Anthropometric Health Indicators of Avocado Consumers and Non-Consumers
3.2. Dietary Intake of Avocado Consumers and Non-Consumers
3.3. Determinants of Avocado Intake
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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DQI-I Component | Scoring Criteria | Scoring |
---|---|---|
Variety Overall food group intake variety | 5 food groups: Meat/poultry/fish/egg; Dairy/beans; Grains; Fruits; Vegetables. Each food group is awarded 0–3 points based on servings eaten per day: ≥1 serving/day (svg/d) = 3 pts; 0 svg/d = 0 pt | 0–20 pts 0–15 |
Within-group variety for protein source | 6 protein sources: Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dairy, Beans, Eggs ≥3 sources consumed: 5 pts 2 sources consumed: 3 pts. 1 source consumed: 1 pt 0 source consumed: 0 pt | 0–5 |
Adequacy | Adequacy in intake of the following 8 groups based on age-and-gender-specific recommendations: For each of the adequacy groups, 0–5 pts are awarded depending on DGA 2020–2025 recommended svg/d or percentage of RDA met. | 0–40 pts |
Vegetables: ≥2.5 svg/d = 5 pts; 0 svg/d = 0 pt | 0–5 | |
Fruits: ≥2 svg/d = 5 pts; 0 svg/d = 0 pt | 0–5 | |
Grain: ≥6 oz/d = 5 pts; 0 oz/d = 0 pt | 0–5 | |
Fiber: Females: ≥25.0 g/day (g/d) = 5 pts; Males: ≥31 g/d = 5 pts; <0.5/g for Males or Females = 0 pt | 0–5 | |
Protein: Females: ≥46.0 g/d = 5 pts; Males: ≥52 g/d = 5 pts; <0.5/g for Males or Females = 0 pt | 0–5 | |
Iron: Females: ≥15.0 milligrams/day (mg/d) = 5 pts, <0.3 mg/d = 0; Males: ≥11 mg/d = 5 pts; <0.22 mg/d = 0 pt | 0–5 | |
Calcium: ≥1300.0 mg/d = 5 pts; < 26.0 mg = 0 pt | 0–5 | |
Vitamin C: Females: ≥65.0 mg/d = 5 pts, <1.3 mg/d = 0; Males: ≥75.0 mg/d = 5 pts; <1.5 mg/d = 0 pt | 0–5 | |
Moderation | For each of the 5 moderation groups, 0–6 pts are awarded depending on percentage of RDA met | 0–30 pts |
Total fat: ≤25% of total energy/d = 6 pts; >25–35% of total energy/d = 3 pts; >35% of total energy/d = 0 pt | 0–6 | |
Saturated fat:<7% of total energy/d = 6 pts; >7–10% of total energy/d = 3 pts; >10% of total energy/d = 0 pt | 0–6 | |
Cholesterol:≤300.0 mg/d = 6 pts; >300–400 mg/d = 3 pts; >400.0 mg/d = 0 pt | 0–6 | |
Sodium:≤2300 mg/d = 6 pts; >2300–3300 mg/d = 3 pts; >3300 mg/d = 0 pt | 0–6 | |
Empty calorie foods:≤3% total energy/d = 6 pts; >3–10% of total energy = 3 pts; >10% of total energy = 0 pt | 0–6 | |
Balance | Balance in the intake of energy from macronutrients ratio is given 0–6 pts, and ratio of the unsaturated to saturated fatty acids is given 0–4 pts. | 0–10 pts |
Macronutrient ratio (carbohydrate: protein: fat): 55.0–65.0: 10.0–15.0: 15.0–25.0 = 6 pts; 52.0–68.0: 9.0–16.0:13.0–27.0 = 4 pts; 50.0–70.0: 8.0–17.0: 12.0–30.0 = 2 pts; else = 0 pt | 0–6 | |
Fatty acid ratio (PUFA:MUFA:SFA): both P/S and M/S are 1.0–1.5 = 4 pts; both P/S and M/S are 0.8–1.7 = 2 pts; else = 0 pt | 0–4 | |
TOTAL DQI-I | Variety + Adequacy + Moderation + Balance | 0–100 pts |
Variable | All Participants | Non-Consumer (n = 215) | Consumer (n = 319) | p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | |||||
Gender | 0.293 * | ||||||
Female | 304 (56.9) | 116 (54.0) | 188 (58.9) | ||||
Male | 230 (43.1) | 99 (46.0) | 131 (41.1) | ||||
Site | <0.001 * | ||||||
California | 296 (55.4) | 94 (43.7) | 202 (63.3) | ||||
Michigan | 238 (44.6) | 121 (56.3) | 117 (36.7) | ||||
Father’s education | 0.046 | ||||||
HS or less | 98 (18.4) | 46 (21.4) | 52 (16.3) | ||||
College | 206 (38.6) | 90 (41.9) | 116 (36.4) | ||||
Graduate | 230 (43.1) | 79 (36.7) | 151 (47.3) | ||||
Ethnicity | 0.002 * | ||||||
African/Afr-Am | 51 (9.6) | 27 (12.6) | 24 (7.5) | ||||
Caucasian | 209 (39.1) | 89 (41.4) | 120 (37.6) | ||||
Hispanic | 76 (14.2) | 15 (7.0) | 61 (19.1) | ||||
Asian | 60 (11.2) | 22 (10.2) | 38 (11.9) | ||||
Other | 138 (25.8) | 62 (28.8) | 76 (23.9) | ||||
Dietary pattern | 0.413 * | ||||||
Non-vegetarian | 396 (74.2) | 164 (76.3) | 232 (72.7) | ||||
Vegetarian | 138 (25.8) | 51 (23.7) | 87 (27.3) | ||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | p-value | |
Age, years | 15.0 | 1.7 | 14.8 | 1.8 | 15.2 | 1.7 | 0.010 † |
Sleep hours | 7.7 | 1.2 | 7.9 | 1.3 | 7.65 | 1.21 | 0.071 † |
Energy intake, kcal | 2191.0 | 764.7 | 2067.1 | 742.0 | 2274.52 | 769.66 | 0.002 † |
Median | IQR | Median | IQR | Median | IQR | p-value | |
Physical activity, min/d | 25.7 | 12.9, 51.4 | 25.7 | 9.6., 41.8 | 25.7 | 12.9, 51.4 | 0.066 ‡ |
Avocado intake, g/d, | 4.8 | 0.0, 8.4 | 0.0 | 0.0, 0.0 | 6.6 | 5.3, 11.8 | <0.001 ‡ |
Component * | Score Ranges (Points) | Non-Consumers (n = 215) | Consumers (n = 319) | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean or Median | SD or IQR | Mean or Median | SD or IQR | |||
DQI-I total | 0–100 | 62.93 | 8.45 | 67.46 | 7.71 | <0.001 † |
Variety | 0–20 | 18.04 | 2.25 | 18.81 | 1.54 | <0.001 ‡ |
Overall Food Group Variety | 0–15 | 13.57 | 1.49 | 14.00 | 1.18 | 0.002 ‡ |
Within-group variety for protein source | 0–5 | 4.56 | 0.92 | 4.84 | 0.55 | <0.001 ‡ |
Adequacy | 0–40 | 33.41 | 5.89 | 36.40 | 4.08 | <0.001 ‡ |
Vegetable group | 0–5 | 3.98 | 1.21 | 4.54 | 0.82 | <0.001 ‡ |
Fruit group | 0–5 | 3.21 | 1.57 | 4.21 | 1.17 | <0.001 ‡ |
Grain group | 0–5 | 4.62 | 0.77 | 4.73 | 0.64 | 0.261 ‡ |
Fiber | 0–5 | 3.50 | 1.19 | 4.05 | 1.07 | <0.001 ‡ |
Protein | 0–5 | 4.86 | 0.44 | 4.96 | 0.22 | 0.002 ‡ |
Vitamin C | 0–5 | 4.75 | 0.69 | 4.94 | 0.31 | <0.001 ‡ |
Calcium | 0–5 | 3.82 | 1.15 | 4.19 | 0.97 | <0.001 ‡ |
Iron | 0–5 | 4.68 | 0.75 | 4.78 | 0.54 | 0.217 ‡ |
Moderation | 0–30 | 10.17 | 5.32 | 10.59 | 5.75 | 0.574 ‡ |
Total fat intake | 0–6 | 1.17 | 1.75 | 1.52 | 1.96 | 0.040 ‡ |
Saturated fat intake | 0–6 | 0.66 | 1.42 | 1.23 | 2.04 | 0.006 ‡ |
Dietary cholesterol | 0–6 | 5.08 | 1.99 | 4.95 | 2.11 | 0.409 ‡ |
Sodium intake | 0–6 | 2.22 | 2.59 | 1.70 | 2.37 | 0.007 ‡ |
Empty calorie foods intake | 0–6 | 1.05 | 1.25 | 1.19 | 1.26 | 0.088 ‡ |
Balance | 0–10 | 1.31 | 1.96 | 1.66 | 2.24 | 0.072 ‡ |
Macronutrient ratio (carb:prot:fat) | 0–6 | 0.45 | 1.20 | 0.58 | 1.30 | 0.097 ‡ |
Fatty acid ratio (PUFA:MUFA:SFA) | 0–4 | 0.87 | 1.46 | 1.08 | 1.54 | 0.077 ‡ |
Variable | Non-Consumer (NC) (n = 215) | Consumer (C) (n = 319) | C:NC Ratio or EMM Diff | p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EMM | 95% CI | EMM | 95% CI | EMM | SD or 95% CI | ||
DQI-I score | 64.62 | 63.39, 65.85 | 68.31 | 67.19, 69.43 | 3.69 | 0.70 § | <0.0001 |
BMI z-score | 0.33 | 0.16, 0.49 | 0.28 | 0.13, 0.43 | −0.05 | −0.23, 0.13 | 0.588 |
Waist-to-Height ratio † | 0.46 | 0.45, 0.47 | 0.46 | 0.45, 0.47 | 1.00 ‡ | 0.98, 1.02 | 0.855 |
Fat-free mass †, kg | 47.17 | 46.20, 48.17 | 46.36 | 45.46, 47.27 | 0.98 ‡ | 0.96, 1.01 | 0.146 |
Female | 40.96 | 39.83, 42.13 | 40.83 | 39.85, 41.84 | 1.00 ‡ | 0.97, 1.03 | 0.841 |
Male | 53.50 | 51.14, 55.97 | 53.99 | 51.61, 56.48 | 1.01 ‡ | 0.96, 1.06 | 0.720 |
Fat mass †, kg | 10.54 | 9.56, 11.63 | 10.52 | 9.63, 11.49 | 1.00 ‡ | 0.89, 1.11 | 0.967 |
Female | 13.95 | 12.38, 15.71 | 13.64 | 12.38, 15.04 | 0.98 ‡ | 0.85, 1.12 | 0.752 |
Male | 7.65 | 6.45, 9.06 | 8.65 | 7.30, 10.25 | 1.13 ‡ | 0.94, 1.37 | 0.202 |
% Body fat † | 17.61 | 16.38, 18.92 | 17.93 | 16.81, 19.13 | 1.02 ‡ | 0.94, 1.11 | 0.659 |
Female | 24.85 | 22.89, 26.99 | 24.65 | 23.09, 26.32 | 0.99 ‡ | 0.90, 1.09 | 0.867 |
Male | 12.21 | 10.73, 13.90 | 13.44 | 11.81, 15.29 | 1.10 ‡ | 0.95, 1.27 | 0.193 |
Food Group/Nutrient | Non-Consumer (NC) (n = 215) | Consumer (C) n = 319 | C:NC Ratio ‡ or Mean Diff | 95% CI | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EMM | 95% CI | EMM | 95% CI | ||||
FOOD GROUPS, serving/day | |||||||
Breads, grains, cereals † | 3.9 | 3.7, 4.1 | 3.8 | 3.6, 4.0 | 0.98 | 0.93, 1.03 | 0.456 |
Dairy | 2.2 | 1.9, 2.3 | 1.9 | 1.8, 2.1 | 0.90 | 0.81, 1.00 | 0.039 |
Animal protein foods † | 0.6 | 0.4, 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.5, 0.6 | 1.03 | 0.90, 1.16 | 0.703 |
Plant protein foods† | 1.5 | 1.3, 1.7 | 1.9 | 1.7, 2.2 | 1.31 | 1.14, 1.51 | 0.0002 |
Fruits † | 1.4 | 1.2, 1.5 | 2.0 | 1.8, 2.2 | 1.50 | 1.33, 1.68 | <0.0001 |
Vegetables † | 2.4 | 2.3, 2.6 | 3.1 | 2.9, 3.3 | 1.28 | 1.18, 1.39 | <0.0001 |
Sweets † | 1.1 | 1.0, 1.3 | 1.2 | 1.1, 1.4 | 1.10 | 0.94, 1.30 | 0.222 |
Sweetened beverages † | 0.7 | 0.6, 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.7, 0.9 | 1.13 | 0.97, 1.32 | 0.119 |
NUTRIENTS, intake per day | |||||||
Energy, kcal/d | 2083.0 | 1961.1, 2204.8 | 2271.3 | 2159.9, 2382.7 | 188.32 | 51.6, 325.0 | 0.007 |
Total fat, g/d | 76.5 | 74.2, 78. 8 | 74.4 | 72.3, 76.5 | −2.10 | −4.7, 0.5 | 0.112 |
SFA †, g/d | 24.9 | 23.8, 26.1 | 23.0 | 22.0, 24.0 | 0.92 | 0.9, 1.0 | 0.002 |
MUFA, g/d | 25.0 | 24.2, 25.8 | 24.9 | 24.2, 25.7 | −0.07 | 1.0, 0.9 | 0.875 |
PUFA, g/d | 19.4 | 18.7, 20.1 | 19.4 | 18.8, 20.1 | 0.03 | −0.8, 0.8 | 0.941 |
Trans fats, g/d | 2.4 | 2.3, 2.5 | 2.2 | 2.2, 2.3 | −0.13 | −0.2, −0.0 | 0.034 |
Carbohydrates, g/d | 263.2 | 257.1, 269.3 | 266.4 | 260.8, 272.0 | 3.22 | −3.7, 10.1 | 0.358 |
Protein, g/d | 77.8 | 75.5, 80.2 | 80.9 | 78.8, 83.0 | 3.09 | 0.47, 5.71 | 0.021 |
Animal protein †, g/d | 25.7 | 24.0, 27.5 | 24.1 | 22.6, 25.7 | 0.94 | 0.87, 1.01 | 0.112 |
Vegetable Protein †, g/d | 43.5 | 41.4, 45.8 | 48.4 | 46.3, 50.7 | 1.11 | 1.05, 1.18 | 0.0002 |
Cholesterol †, mg/d | 159.5 | 148.0, 171.9 | 149.4 | 139.5, 160.0 | 0.94 | 0.86, 1.02 | 0.125 |
Dietary fiber †, g/d | 23.5 | 22.5, 24.5 | 26.3 | 25.3, 27.3 | 1.12 | 1.06, 1.17 | <0.0001 |
Retinol †, mcg/d | 813.5 | 773.1, 855.9 | 875.6 | 835.8, 917.3 | 1.08 | 1.02, 1.14 | 0.012 |
Folate †, mcg/d | 576.1 | 549.8, 603.7 | 603.3 | 578.0, 629.6 | 1.05 | 0.99, 1.10 | 0.086 |
Vitamin C †, mg/d | 138.7 | 127.4, 151.1 | 164.0 | 151.8, 177.3 | 1.18 | 1.07, 1.30 | 0.0006 |
Vitamin E †, mg/d | 8.8 | 8.4, 9.2 | 9.3 | 8.9, 9.7 | 1.05 | 1.00, 1.11 | 0.070 |
Calcium †, mg/d | 1077.3 | 1032.1, 1124.4 | 1154.7 | 1110.3, 1200.8 | 1.07 | 1.02, 1.12 | 0.005 |
Magnesium †, mg/d | 330.9 | 321.4, 340.7 | 359.5 | 350.0, 369.1 | 1.09 | 1.05, 1.12 | <0.0001 |
Iron †, mg/d | 17.6 | 16.9, 18.3 | 18.67 | 18.0, 19.3 | 1.06 | 1.01, 1.11 | 0.010 |
Zinc, mg/d | 11.6 | 11.1, 12.0 | 11.7 | 11.3, 12.1 | 0.13 | −0.33, 0.59 | 0.585 |
Sodium, mg/d | 3259.1 | 3167.9, 3350.4 | 3377.7 | 3294.2, 3461.1 | 118.54 | 16.14, 220.94 | 0.023 |
Potassium †, mg/d | 2671.4 | 2588.36, 2757.15 | 2943.55 | 2859.8, 3029.8 | 1.10 | 1.06, 1.14 | <0.0001 |
Variable | Estimated β Coefficent | Standard Error | 95% CI | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
DQI-I: Variety | 0.15 | 0.09 | −0.02 to 0.32 | 0.093 |
DQI-I: Adequacy | 0.11 | 0.03 | 0.05 to 0.17 | 0.0002 |
DQI-I: Moderation | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.01 to 0.11 | 0.016 |
DQI-I: Balance | −0.07 | 0.06 | −0.20 to 0.05 | 0.260 |
Age | 0.12 | 0.06 | −0.01 to 0.25 | 0.064 |
Gender | ||||
Female | reference | -- | -- | |
Male | −0.28 | 0.22 | −0.70 to 0.15 | 0.201 |
Site | ||||
California | reference | -- | -- | |
Michigan | −0.46 | 0.22 | −0.89 to −0.04 | 0.032 |
Father’s educational level | ||||
High School or less | −0.60 | 0.29 | −1.18 to −0.02 | 0.042 |
College | −0.44 | 0.23 | −0.89 to 0.01 | 0.057 |
Graduate | reference | -- | -- | |
Ethnicity | ||||
Caucasian | reference | -- | -- | |
African/Afr-Am | −0.76 | 0.36 | −1.47 to −0.06 | 0.034 |
Hispanic | 0.82 | 0.37 | 0.12 to 1.57 | 0.025 |
Asian | −0.25 | 0.36 | −0.95 to 0.46 | 0.480 |
Other | −0.30 | 0.39 | −1.07 to 0.47 | 0.439 |
Multi-Ethnic | −0.38 | 0.30 | −0.96 to 0.20 | 0.198 |
Sleep, hours | −0.15 | 0.09 | −0.33 to 0.02 | 0.086 |
Physical activity, mins/day | 0.01 | 0.00 | −0.00 to 0.02 | 0.055 |
Vegetarian status | ||||
Non-Vegetarian | reference | -- | -- | |
Vegetarian | 0.21 | 0.31 | −0.39 to 0.83 | 0.490 |
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Segovia-Siapco, G.; Paalani, M.; Oda, K.; Pribis, P.; Sabaté, J. Associations between Avocado Consumption and Diet Quality, Dietary Intake, Measures of Obesity and Body Composition in Adolescents: The Teen Food and Development Study. Nutrients 2021, 13, 4489. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124489
Segovia-Siapco G, Paalani M, Oda K, Pribis P, Sabaté J. Associations between Avocado Consumption and Diet Quality, Dietary Intake, Measures of Obesity and Body Composition in Adolescents: The Teen Food and Development Study. Nutrients. 2021; 13(12):4489. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124489
Chicago/Turabian StyleSegovia-Siapco, Gina, Michael Paalani, Keiji Oda, Peter Pribis, and Joan Sabaté. 2021. "Associations between Avocado Consumption and Diet Quality, Dietary Intake, Measures of Obesity and Body Composition in Adolescents: The Teen Food and Development Study" Nutrients 13, no. 12: 4489. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124489