Efficiency of Resistant Starch and Dextrins as Prebiotics: A Review of the Existing Evidence and Clinical Trials
Abstract
:1. Prebiotics
2. Dietary Fibers
- ➢
- reduce the stool transit time, while increasing its bulk [33];
- ➢
- be used as a carbon source by colonic microbiota (as fermentation substrate) [34];
- ➢
- reduce the levels of cholesterol (either total or LDL cholesterol) [35]; and
- ➢
- support glucose and insulin metabolism (reduce the levels of blood glucose and insulin) [36].
- ➢
- non-starch polysaccharides including cellulose, hemicelluloses, mannans, pectins, and other hydrocolloids (i.e., b-glucans, gums, and mucilages), inulin, and fructans;
- ➢
- resistant oligosaccharides including fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), galactooligosaccharides (GOS);
- ➢
- resistant starch and dextrins [30].
3. Short-Chain Fatty Acids
3.1. Effects of SCFA Absorption in the Human Colon
3.2. SCFA Receptors
3.3. Influence of SCFA on Gut-Brain Axis
3.4. Functions of SCFA in the Liver
3.4.1. Resistant Dextrins in Clinical Trials
3.4.2. Overview of Resistant Starch
RS1 = TS − (RDS + SDS) − RS2 − RS3
RS2 = TS − (RDS + SDS) − RS1 − RS3
RS3 = TS − (RDS + SDS) − RS1 − RS2
3.4.3. Resistant Starch Type I
3.4.4. Resistant Starch Type II
3.4.5. Resistant Starch Type III
3.4.6. Resistant Starch Type IV
3.4.7. Resistant Starch Type 5
3.4.8. Resistant Starch in Clinical Trials
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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AOAC Method | Measurement Type | Enzymes Used | Other Properties |
---|---|---|---|
985.29 | Total HMWDF | Bacterial α-amylase, protease, and amyloglucosidase | 1 g sample, phosphate buffer |
991.42 | IDF in food products | Bacterial α-amylase, protease, and amyloglucosidase | 1 g sample, phosphate buffer |
991.43 | IDF and SDFP | Bacterial α-amylase, protease, and amyloglucosidase | 1 g sample, Tris or MES buffer, pH = 8.2 |
993.19 | SDFP in food products | Bacterial α-amylase, protease, and amyloglucosidase | 1 g sample, phosphate buffer |
993.21 | HMWDF (samples with more than 10% fiber and less than 2% starch) | Carried out without enzymes | 0.1 g sample, without buffer, |
994.13 | HMWDF | Bacterial α-amylase and amyloglucosidase | 0.25–0.5 g sample, acetate buffer, also provides composition of sugars and Klason lignin |
2001.03 | HMWDF and SDFS | Bacterial α-amylase, protease, and amyloglucosidase | 1 g sample, phosphate buffer, only for samples free of resistant starch |
2009.01 | HMWDF and SDFS | Pancreatic α-amylase, protease, and amyloglucosidase | 1 g sample, meleate buffer, pH = 6.0, available for any kind of food |
2011.25 | IDF, SDFP, and SDFS | Pancreatic α-amylase, protease, and amyloglucosidase | 1 g sample, meleate buffer, pH = 6.0, available for any kind of food |
Dietary Fibers | Supplements Available on the Market | Dosage of Fiber Per Serving |
---|---|---|
Wheat dextrin | Benefiber (Novartis Consumer Health, USA) | 3 g |
Wheat dextrin | Optifiber (Kirkland Signature, USA) | 3 g |
Psyllium | 3-in-1 FIBER (Metamucil, AUS) | 2.4 g |
Resistant tapioca dextrin | Completely Clear Organic Prebiotic Fiber (RenewLife, USA) | 6 g |
Chia seed, organic flaxseed | Flax & Chia (Whole Foods Market, USA) | 8 g |
Dextrin | Fiber Powder (Equate, KW) | 3.5 g |
Flax seed, chia seed, sunflower seed and others | Raw Organic Fiber (Garden of Life, USA) | 9 g |
Soluble stabilized rice bran, rice germ, chicory root | Zeal for Life (Zurvita, USA) | 4 g |
Polydextrose | Fiber Well Fit (Vitafusion, USA) | 4 g |
Chicory, inulin | Daily Fiber Gummies (Konsyl Pharmaceuticals, USA) | 3 g |
Flax seed, chia seed | Super Seed Beyond Fiber (Garden of Life, USA) | 6 g |
Chicory root, tapioca starch | Prebiotic Fiber Gummies (Lifeable, USA) | 4 g |
Psyllium | Psyllium Husk (Sunergetic, USA) | 1.5 g |
Soluble corn fiber | Prebiotic Soluble Fiber (Just Better, USA) | 5 g |
Reference | Dextrin | Patients | Dosage [g/Day] | Time of Study | Outcome |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[125] | Nutriose® | 55 women with type-2 diabetes (age 30–65) | 10 g | 8 weeks | Significant decrease in fasting insulin, malondialdehyde (MDA), and endotoxin. |
[126] | Nutriose® | 62 women with polycystic ovary syndrome (age 18–45) | 20 g | 3 months | Positive influence on metabolic parameters, androgen levels, hirsutism, and menstrual cycle regularity |
[127] | Nutriose® | 62 females (age 18–45) | 20 g | 12 weeks | Confirmed the positive and significant effects in reducing anthropometric indices |
[128] | Nutriose® | 65 females with type-2 diabetes (age 30–65) | 10 g | 8 weeks | Improved end products of advanced glycation and other risk factors of cardiometabolic diseases |
[129] | Nutriose® | 55 females with type-2 diabetes (age 30–65) | 10 g | 8 weeks | Supplementation yielded significant decrease in levels of cortisol, LPS. Increased levels of CD8 lymphocytes. Improved mental health and immune response. |
[130] | Nutriose® | 50 males, 50 females (age 35–55) | 8 g, 14 g, 18 g, 24 g | 3 weeks | Decreased hunger over longer supplementation. Significant increase of short-term satiety |
[131] | Nutriose® | 50 males, 50 females (age 35–55) | 8 g, 14 g, 18 g, 24 g | 9 weeks | Significant reduction of energy intake, BMI, and body fat in groups with intake of 14–24 g Nutriose per day |
[132] | Resistant maltodextrin and isomaltose | 27 males, 14 females (age 18–80) | 5.28 g and 16.5 g | 20 weeks | Improvement of insulin resistance in patients with type-2 diabetes, overweight, and obesity |
[36] | Resistant dextrin (MPCIR) | 38 males, 61 females (age 45–70) | 8–34 g | 12 weeks | Improvement of glycemic control, insulin resistance, and blood pressure. |
[133] | Resistant maltodextrin and isomaltose | 11 males, 3 females (age 18–80) | 5.28 g and 16.5 g | 20 weeks | Enhancement of pathways related to metabolism, including terpenoid-quinone, lipopolysaccharides, and N-glycan biosynthesis. Significant impact on gut microbiota in diabetic subjects. |
[134] | Resistant dextrin | 275 subjects (meta-analysis) | 10–34 g | 8–12 weeks | Beneficial effects on BMI and weight loss in overweight adults. |
[49] | Nutriose® | 22 males, 64 females (age 18–59) | 10–20 g | 2 weeks | Increased counts of Bacteroides spp. and inhibition of Clostridium perfringens. Increased β-glucosidase activity and decreased colonic pH. No indications of gastrointestinal intolerance were found. |
[48] | Nutriose® | 17 males, 19 females (age 22–55) | 14 g | 4 weeks | Supplementation was associated with higher fasted satiety scores and attenuation of the glycemic response |
[135] | Isomaltulose, resistant dextrin, and inulin | 8 males, 22 females (age 18–60) | 45 g in total | 4 days | Reduction of glycemic response and longer term of satiety without causing any serious side effects |
[136] | Fructooligosaccharides, xylooligosaccharides, polydextrose, and resistant dextrin | 90 males, 50 females (age 40–75) | 30 g total (7.5 g each component) | 1 week | Improved serum immunologic indicators |
[137] | Nutriose® | 120 overweight males (age 26–35) | 34 g | 12 weeks | Reduction of energy intake, BMI, body fat percentage, and waist circumference. Improved glucose metabolism markers. Improved lipid metabolism. No adverse effects. |
[138] | Nutriose® | 12 males (age 20–65) | 50 g | 10 h | Decreased ghrelin concentrations in response to the lunch, prolonged energy release. Reduced glycemic and insulinemic responses to breakfast. |
[34] | Fibersol-2 | 23 males, 28 females (age 19–33) | 25 g | 3 weeks | Increased fecal Bifidobacteria counts and stool wet weight |
[139] | Fibersol-2 | 10 males, 9 females (age 20–65) | 5 or 10 g | 4 h | A total of 10 g of Fibersol-2 stimulates production of satiety hormones (peptide-YY). |
[140] | Fibersol-2 | HTC116 cell line | - | - | Significant inhibition of tumor growth of HCT116 cells by induction of apoptosis without visible signs of toxicity in vivo. |
[141] | Fibersol-2 | 19 subjects | 5 or 10 g | 1 day | FS-2 administration stimulated production of specific satiety peptides such as PYY, decreased the hunger peptide ghrelin, and enhanced satiety after a meal. |
[33] | Fibersol-2 | 32 males, 34 females (age 18–30) | 15 g | 3 weeks | Improved colonic functions, transit time, stool volume, and consistency. |
[142] | Fibersol-2 | 4 males, 28 females (age 32–63) | 20 g | 20 days | Improved symptoms of the idiopathic primary chronic constipation. |
[143] | Fibersol-2 | 20 males, 10 females (age 50–72) | 27 g | 12 weeks | Improved state of the risk factors of metabolic syndrome through the reduction of visceral fat and improvement of glucose and lipid metabolism. |
[144] | Fibersol-2 | 24 males (age 20–24) | 11 g | 4 days | Increased satiety |
Type of Resistant Starch | Description | Production | Source |
---|---|---|---|
RS1 | Protected physically, trapped in matrix resistant to enzymatic digestion | Milling or partial grinding | Grains, seeds, legumes, pastas |
RS2 | Raw starch granules with crystalline structure of type B. | Gelatinization by thermal treatment | Green bananas, raw potatoes, corn with high amylose content, specific legumes |
RS3 | Starch that underwent retrogradation process | Retrogradation by repeated thermal treatment (cooking and cooling) | Starch products that underwent specific thermal treatment (breads, cakes, cornflakes) |
RS4 | Chemically or physically modified starches, cross-linked with chemical reagents | Mainly chemical, enzymatic, or thermal treatment often resulting in substitution with phosphates | Hardly available for human consumption. Present in specially designed starch products and food additives. |
RS5 | Amylose complexes with lipids or fatty acids | Formed during food processing or naturally occurring within foods of high amylose content | Products with high amylose content |
Reference | Resistant Starch | Patients | Dosage [g/Day] | Time and Type of Study | Outcome |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[166] | MSPrebiotic® | 24 females, 18 males (age ≥ 70) and 25 females, 17 males (age 30–50) | 30 g/day | 3 months/RCT study | Significant reduction of insulin resistance, which is an important risk factor for developing type-2 diabetes. |
[167] | RS2: Hi-maize 260, National Starch LLC | 56 females with type 2 diabetes (age 32–65) | 10 g/day | 8 weeks/RCT study | Significantly decreased levels of MDA, glycosylated hemoglobin, insulin, improved homeostasis model of insulin resistance and lowered endotoxins levels, a significant increase in TAC and glutathione peroxidase |
[168] | Cross-linked RS type 4 | 7 females, 6 males (age 22–32, BMI 22–28) | 27 g/day | 1 day/ RCT study | Peak glucose and insulin concentrations in subjects were decreased |
[169] | VERSAFIBE™ 2470 | 14 males, 14 females (age 24–58) | 11.6 g/day | 1 day/ RCT study | Significant reduction in postprandial serum glucose and decrease in maximum glucose concentration. Reduced postprandial serum insulin. |
[170] | High-amylose maize type 2 resistant starch | 11 males, 22 females (age 18–69, BMI < 35) | 15, 30 g/day | 4 weeks/ RCT study | Improved insulin sensitivity in male subjects. |
[171] | High-amylose maize (RS2) | 20 males, 39 females (BMI ≥ 27, age 35–75) | 45 g/day | 12 weeks/ RCT study | Reduced the inflammatory marker TNF-α and heart rate, but no significant improvement of glycemic control and other cardiovascular disease risk factors |
[172] | RS4-enriched flour (30% v/v) | 86 adults (gender not specified) | 25.7 g/day | 12 weeks/RCT study | No significant effect for glycemic variables and blood pressures. Improved dyslipidemia (lowered cholesterol levels) and body composition. |
[173] (Meta-analysis) | Resistant starch | 13 studies, 15–75 subjects per study | - | 4–14 weeks | Improved inflammatory biomarkers |
[35] (Meta-analysis) | Resistant starch | 19 studies, 1014 subjects in total | - | - | Significant reduction in fasting plasma glucose, insulin, total cholesterol, and tumor necrosis factor alpha. |
[174] | HAM-(RS2) | 16 males, 8 females (BMI = 30, average age 55) | 25 g | 57 days | Improved glycemic efficiency and fasting insulin sensitivity in adults at increased risk of T2D |
[175] | Resistant starch | 19 males, 31 females (age > 50, overweight) | 25 g | 12 months | Glycemic control in prediabetic patients was unaffected by RS-rich diet in contrast to the regular fibre rich diet. |
[176] | Resistant starch in form of cocoa and unripe banana flour beverage | 60 females (age 20–50) | 30 g | 6 weeks | Decreased the symptoms of dyspepsia, improved gastrointestinal symptoms, and increased production of propionic acid. The cocoa beverage showed an anti-inflammatory effect. |
[177] | Arabinoxylan and resistant starch | 14 males, 5 females (age 39–75) | 21 g | 4 weeks | Improved fasting LDL and total cholesterol. No diet related impact on postprandial lipaemia. |
[36] | Milk powder co-supplemented with inulin and resistant dextrin | 38 males, 61 females (age 45–70) | 45 g | 12 weeks | Supplementation improved glycemic control, insulin resistance, and blood pressure. |
[178] | Resistant starch Hi-Maize® | 18 males, 13 females (age 42–65) | 16 g | 4 weeks | Supplementation improved inflammation and oxidative stress and reduced indoxyl sulfate plasma levels |
[179] | HAM-resistant starch type 2 | 28 males, 16 females (age 41–74) | 25 g | 8 weeks | Significant reduction of levels of inflammatory and oxidative markers in hemodialysis patients |
[180] | HAM-resistant starch type 2 | 29 males, 21 females (age 43–71) | 25 g | 8 weeks | Decreased serum levels of serum creatinine and p-cresol |
[181] | Resistant starch (potato starch and high-amylase starch) | 39 males, 31 females (age 18–80) | 50 g | 12 weeks | Improvement of the blood glucose and blood lipid levels, decrease in the serum uric acid (UA) and urine β2-MG, and reduced antioxidative stress |
[182] | Green banana biomass | 26 males, 87 females (age 18–85) | 40 g (approx. 5 g of resistant starch) | 24 weeks | Consumption of bioactive starches can improve metabolic control and body composition |
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Włodarczyk, M.; Śliżewska, K. Efficiency of Resistant Starch and Dextrins as Prebiotics: A Review of the Existing Evidence and Clinical Trials. Nutrients 2021, 13, 3808. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13113808
Włodarczyk M, Śliżewska K. Efficiency of Resistant Starch and Dextrins as Prebiotics: A Review of the Existing Evidence and Clinical Trials. Nutrients. 2021; 13(11):3808. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13113808
Chicago/Turabian StyleWłodarczyk, Michał, and Katarzyna Śliżewska. 2021. "Efficiency of Resistant Starch and Dextrins as Prebiotics: A Review of the Existing Evidence and Clinical Trials" Nutrients 13, no. 11: 3808. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13113808