COVID-19 Pandemic Is a Call to Search for Alternative Protein Sources as Food and Feed: A Review of Possibilities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Is the Reduction of Meat Consumption a Solution?
3. Is Insect-Based Protein a Solution?
4. Is Cultured Meat a Solution?
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Woolhouse, M.; Gaunt, E. Ecological Origins of Novel Human Pathogens. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 2007, 33, 231–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jones, K.E.; Patel, N.G.; Levy, M.A.; Storeygard, A.; Balk, D.; Gittleman, J.L.; Daszak, P. Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature 2008, 451, 990–993. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Taylor, L.H.; Latham, S.M.; Woolhouse, M.E. Risk factors for human disease emergence. Philos. Trans. R Soc. Lond B Biol. Sci. 2001, 356, 983–989. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Halabowski, D.; Rzymski, P. Taking a lesson from the COVID-19 pandemic: Preventing the future outbreaks of viral zoonoses through a multi-faceted approach. Sci. Total. Environ. 2020, 757, 143723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhou, P.; Yang, X.-L.; Wang, X.-G.; Hu, B.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, W.; Si, H.-R.; Zhu, Y.; Li, B.; Huang, C.-L.; et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 2020, 579, 270–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lam, T.T.-Y.; Jia, N.; Zhang, Y.-W.; Shum, M.H.-H.; Jiang, J.-F.; Zhu, H.-C.; Tong, Y.-G.; Shi, Y.-X.; Ni, X.-B.; Liao, Y.-S.; et al. Identifying SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins. Nature 2020, 583, 282–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wartecki, A.; Rzymski, P. On the Coronaviruses and Their Associations with the Aquatic Environment and Wastewater. Water 2020, 12, 1598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayman, D.T.S.; Yu, M.; Crameri, G.; Wang, L.-F.; Suu-Ire, R.; Wood, J.L.N.; Cunningham, A.A. Ebola virus antibodies in fruit bats, Ghana, West Africa. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2012, 18, 1207–1209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bennett, A.J.; Paskey, A.C.; Ebinger, A.; Pfaff, F.; Priemer, G.; Höper, D.; Breithaupt, A.; Heuser, E.; Ulrich, R.G.; Kuhn, J.H.; et al. Relatives of rubella virus in diverse mammals. Nature 2020, 586, 424–428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Z.; Luckay, A.; Sodora, D.L.; Telfer, P.; Reed, P.; Gettie, A.; Kanu, J.M.; Sadek, R.F.; Yee, J.; Ho, D.D.; et al. Human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) seroprevalence and characterization of a distinct HIV-2 genetic subtype from the natural range of simian immunodeficiency virus-infected sooty mangabeys. J. Virol. 1997, 71, 3953–3960. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sharp, P.M.; Hahn, B.H. Origins of HIV and the AIDS pandemic. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med. 2011, 1, a006841. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Roe, D.; Dickman, A.; Kock, R.; Milner-Gulland, E.J.; Rihoy, E.; Sas-Rolfes, M. Beyond banning wildlife trade: COVID-19, conservation and development. World Dev. 2020, 136, 105121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Allen, T.; Murray, K.A.; Zambrana-Torrelio, C.; Morse, S.S.; Rondinini, C.; Di Marco, M.; Olival, K.J.; Daszak, P. Global correlates of emerging zoonoses: Anthropogenic, environmental, and biodiversity risk factors. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2016, 53, 4–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sun, H.; Xiao, Y.; Liu, J.; Wang, D.; Li, F.; Wang, C.; Li, C.; Zhu, J.; Song, J.; Sun, H.; et al. Prevalent Eurasian avian-like H1N1 swine influenza virus with 2009 pandemic viral genes facilitating human infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA 2020, 117, 17204–17210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tizard, I.R.J.V. Vaccination against coronaviruses in domestic animals. Vaccine 2020, 38, 5123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lau, S.K.P.; Wong, E.Y.M.; Tsang, C.-C.; Ahmed, S.S.; Au-Yeung, R.K.H.; Yuen, K.-Y.; Wernery, U.; Woo, P.C.Y. Discovery and Sequence Analysis of Four Deltacoronaviruses from Birds in the Middle East Reveal Interspecies Jumping with Recombination as a Potential Mechanism for Avian-to-Avian and Avian-to-Mammalian Transmission. J. Virol. 2018, 92, e00265-18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wang, Q.; Vlasova, A.N.; Kenney, S.P.; Saif, L.J. Emerging and re-emerging coronaviruses in pigs. Curr. Opin. virol. 2019, 34, 39–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gong, Y.; Ma, T.-c.; Xu, Y.-y.; Yang, R.; Gao, L.-j.; Wu, S.-h.; Li, J.; Yue, M.-l.; Liang, H.-g.; He, X.; et al. Early Research on COVID-19: A Bibliometric Analysis. Innovation 2020, 1, 100027. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Edwards, C.E.; Yount, B.L.; Graham, R.L.; Leist, S.R.; Hou, Y.J.; Dinnon, K.H.; Sims, A.C.; Swanstrom, J.; Gully, K.; Scobey, T.D.; et al. Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus replication in primary human cells reveals potential susceptibility to infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2020, 117, 26915–26925. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pitts, N.; Whitnall, T. Impact of African swine fever on global markets. Agric. Commod. 2019, 9, 52. [Google Scholar]
- Scott, A.; Hernandez-Jover, M.; Groves, P.; Toribio, J.-A. An overview of avian influenza in the context of the Australian commercial poultry industry. One Health 2020, 10, 100139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Alders, R.; Awuni, J.A.; Bagnol, B.; Farrell, P.; de Haan, N. Impact of avian influenza on village poultry production globally. EcoHealth 2014, 11, 63–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fong, I.W. Animals and Mechanisms of Disease Transmission. Emerg. Zoonoses 2017, 15–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, Y.; Yuan, Q.; Mathieu, J.; Stadler, L.; Senehi, N.; Sun, R.; Alvarez, P.J.J. Antibiotic resistance genes from livestock waste: Occurrence, dissemination, and treatment. npj Clean Water 2020, 3, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Poore, J.; Nemecek, T. Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Science 2018, 360, 987–992. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Sans, P.; Combris, P. World meat consumption patterns: An overview of the last fifty years (1961–2011). Meat Sci. 2015, 109, 106–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Milford, A.B.; Le Mouël, C.; Bodirsky, B.L.; Rolinski, S. Drivers of meat consumption. Appetite 2019, 141, 104313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Edelstein, S. Food Science: An. Ecological Approach; Jones & Bartlett Publishers: Burlington, MA, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Arora, R.S.; Brent, D.A.; Jaenicke, E.C. Is India Ready for Alt-Meat? Preferences and Willingness to Pay for Meat Alternatives. Sustainability 2020, 12, 4377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Economic Forum. Meat: The Future Series Alternative Proteins. Available online: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_White_Paper_Alternative_Proteins.pdf (accessed on 13 September 2020).
- Faber, I.; Castellanos-Feijoó, N.A.; Van de Sompel, L.; Davydova, A.; Perez-Cueto, F.J.A. Attitudes and knowledge towards plant-based diets of young adults across four European countries. Exploratory survey. Appetite 2020, 145, 104498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cramer, H.; Kessler, C.S.; Sundberg, T.; Leach, M.J.; Schumann, D.; Adams, J.; Lauche, R. Characteristics of Americans Choosing Vegetarian and Vegan Diets for Health Reasons. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 2017, 49, 561–567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Buttny, R.; Kinefuchi, E. Vegans’ problem stories: Negotiating vegan identity in dealing with omnivores. Discourse Soc. 2020, 31, 565–583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- International Agency for Research on Cancer Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. In Red Meat and Processed Meat; IARC: Lyon, France, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Kahleova, H.; Levin, S.; Barnard, N. Cardio-Metabolic Benefits of Plant-Based Diets. Nutrients 2017, 9, 848. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McMacken, M.; Shah, S. A plant-based diet for the prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes. J. Geriatr. Cardiol. JGC 2017, 14, 342–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dinu, M.; Abbate, R.; Gensini, G.F.; Casini, A.; Sofi, F. Vegetarian, vegan diets and multiple health outcomes: A systematic review with meta-analysis of observational studies. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2017, 57, 3640–3649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, H.; Lee, K.; Rebholz, C.M.; Kim, J. Association between unhealthy plant-based diets and the metabolic syndrome in adult men and women: A population-based study in South Korea. Br. J. Nutr. 2020, 10, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hemler, E.C.; Hu, F.B. Plant-Based Diets for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention: All Plant Foods Are Not Created Equal. Curr. Atheroscler. Rep. 2019, 21, 18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rosenfeld, D.L.; Burrow, A.L. Vegetarian on purpose: Understanding the motivations of plant-based dieters. Appetite 2017, 116, 456–463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cleveland, D.A.; Gee, Q. 9—Plant-Based Diets for Mitigating Climate Change. In Vegetarian and Plant-Based Diets in Health and Disease Prevention; Mariotti, F., Ed.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2017; pp. 135–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change and Land. An. IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems; IPCC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Sha, L.; Xiong, Y.L. Plant protein-based alternatives of reconstructed meat: Science, technology, and challenges. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 102, 51–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Graça, J.; Calheiros, M.M.; Oliveira, A. Attached to meat? (Un)Willingness and intentions to adopt a more plant-based diet. Appetite 2015, 95, 113–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Verhoeckx, K.; Broekman, H.; Knulst, A.; Houben, G. Allergenicity assessment strategy for novel food proteins and protein sources. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2016, 79, 118–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dodd, S.A.S.; Cave, N.J.; Adolphe, J.L.; Shoveller, A.K.; Verbrugghe, A. Plant-based (vegan) diets for pets: A survey of pet owner attitudes and feeding practices. PLOS ONE 2019, 14, e0210806. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kanakubo, K.; Fascetti, A.J.; Larsen, J.A. Assessment of protein and amino acid concentrations and labeling adequacy of commercial vegetarian diets formulated for dogs and cats. J. Am. Vet. Med Assoc. 2015, 247, 385–392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ramos-Elorduy, J. Anthropo-entomophagy: Cultures, evolution and sustainability. Entomol. Res. 2009, 39, 271–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raheem, D.; Carrascosa, C.; Oluwole, O.B.; Nieuwland, M.; Saraiva, A.; Millán, R.; Raposo, A. Traditional consumption of and rearing edible insects in Africa, Asia and Europe. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 59, 2169–2188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van der Fels-Klerx, H.J.; Camenzuli, L.; Belluco, S.; Meijer, N.; Ricci, A. Food Safety Issues Related to Uses of Insects for Feeds and Foods. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2018, 17, 1172–1183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hawkey, K.J.; Lopez-Viso, C.; Brameld, J.M.; Parr, T.; Salter, A.M. Insects: A Potential Source of Protein and Other Nutrients for Feed and Food. Annu. Rev. Anim. Biosci. 2021, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Huis, A. Prospects of insects as food and feed. Org. Agric. 2020, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Huis, A. Insects as food and feed, a new emerging agricultural sector: A review. J. Insects Food Feed 2019, 6, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kouřimská, L.; Adámková, A. Nutritional and sensory quality of edible insects. NFS J. 2016, 4, 22–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Raheem, D.; Raposo, A.; Oluwole, O.B.; Nieuwland, M.; Saraiva, A.; Carrascosa, C. Entomophagy: Nutritional, ecological, safety and legislation aspects. Food Res. Int. 2019, 126, 108672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- van Huis, A.; Oonincx, D.G.A.B. The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2017, 37, 43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dicke, M.; Eilenberg, J.; Salles, J.F.; Jensen, A.B.; Lecocq, A.; Pijlman, G.P.; Loon, J.J.A.v.; Oers, M.M.v. Edible insects unlikely to contribute to transmission of coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. J. Insects Food Feed 2020, 6, 333–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Käfer, S.; Paraskevopoulou, S.; Zirkel, F.; Wieseke, N.; Donath, A.; Petersen, M.; Jones, T.C.; Liu, S.; Zhou, X.; Middendorf, M.; et al. Re-assessing the diversity of negative strand RNA viruses in insects. PLOS Pathog. 2019, 15, e1008224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Garofalo, C.; Osimani, A.; Milanović, V.; Taccari, M.; Cardinali, F.; Aquilanti, L.; Riolo, P.; Ruschioni, S.; Isidoro, N.; Clementi, F. The microbiota of marketed processed edible insects as revealed by high-throughput sequencing. Food Microbiol. 2017, 62, 15–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jeandron, A.; Rinaldi, L.; Abdyldaieva, G.; Usubalieva, J.; Steinmann, P.; Cringoli, G.; Utzinger, J. Human Infections with Dicrocoelium dendriticum in Kyrgyzstan: The Tip of the Iceberg? J. Parasitol. 2011, 97, 1170–1172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Molavi, G.H.; Massoud, J.; Gutierrez, Y. Human Gongylonema infection in Iran. J. Helminthol. 2006, 80, 425–428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Caparros Megido, R.; Poelaert, C.; Ernens, M.; Liotta, M.; Blecker, C.; Danthine, S.; Tyteca, E.; Haubruge, É.; Alabi, T.; Bindelle, J.; et al. Effect of household cooking techniques on the microbiological load and the nutritional quality of mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L. 1758). Food Res. Int. 2018, 106, 503–508. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Govorushko, S. Global status of insects as food and feed source: A review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2019, 91, 436–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lalander, C.; Senecal, J.; Gros Calvo, M.; Ahrens, L.; Josefsson, S.; Wiberg, K.; Vinnerås, B. Fate of pharmaceuticals and pesticides in fly larvae composting. Sci. Total Environ. 2016, 565, 279–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Charlton, A.; Dickinson, M.; Wakefield, M.; Fitches, E.; Kenis, M.; Han, R.; Zhu, F.; Kone, N.; Grant, M.; Devic, E.; et al. Exploring the chemical safety of fly larvae as a source of protein for animal feed. J. Insects Food Feed 2015, 1, 7–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eilenberg, J.; Vlak, J.; Nielsen-LeRoux, C.; Cappellozza, S.; Jensen, A.B. Feed. Diseases in insects produced for food and feed. J. Insects Food Feed 2015, 1, 87–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Berggren, Å.; Jansson, A.; Low, M. Approaching Ecological Sustainability in the Emerging Insects-as-Food Industry. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2019, 34, 132–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- McMenamin, A.J.; Flenniken, M.L. Recently identified bee viruses and their impact on bee pollinators. Curr. Opin. Insect Sci. 2018, 26, 120–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Genovese, N.J.; Roberts, R.M.; Telugu, B.P.V. U.S. Patent Application 15/134,252, 11 August 2016.
- Frieri, M.; Kumar, K.; Boutin, A. Antibiotic resistance. J. Infect. Public Health 2017, 10, 369–378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Stanton, M.M.; Tzatzalos, E.; Donne, M.; Kolundzic, N.; Helgason, I.; Ilic, D. Prospects for the Use of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells in Animal Conservation and Environmental Protection. Stem Cells Transl. Med. 2019, 8, 7–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Post, M.J. Cultured meat from stem cells: Challenges and prospects. Meat Sci. 2012, 92, 297–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sikora, D.; Rzymski, P. Public Acceptance of GM Foods: A Global Perspective. In Policy Issues in Genetically Modified Crops: A Global Perspective; Singh, P., Borthakur, A., Abha, A., Ajay, S., Singh, K., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; p. 293. [Google Scholar]
- World Health Organization. Antimicrobial Resistance: Global Report on Surveillance; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Ryu, A.H.; Eckalbar, W.L.; Kreimer, A.; Yosef, N.; Ahituv, N. Use antibiotics in cell culture with caution: Genome-wide identification of antibiotic-induced changes in gene expression and regulation. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 7533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nygaard, U.H.; Niehues, H.; Rikken, G.; Rodijk-Olthuis, D.; Schalkwijk, J.; van den Bogaard, E.H. Antibiotics in cell culture: Friend or foe? Suppression of keratinocyte growth and differentiation in monolayer cultures and 3D skin models. Exp. Dermatol. 2015, 24, 964–965. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lehmann, R.; Severitt, J.C.; Roddelkopf, T.; Junginger, S.; Thurow, K. Biomek Cell Workstation:A Variable System for Automated Cell Cultivation. J. Lab. Autom. 2016, 21, 439–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Stout, A.J.; Mirliani, A.B.; Soule-Albridge, E.L.; Cohen, J.M.; Kaplan, D.L. Engineering carotenoid production in mammalian cells for nutritionally enhanced cell-cultured foods. Metab. Eng. 2020, 62, 126–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stephens, N.; Di Silvio, L.; Dunsford, I.; Ellis, M.; Glencross, A.; Sexton, A. Technology. Bringing cultured meat to market: Technical, socio-political, and regulatory challenges in cellular agriculture. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2018, 78, 155–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kandoi, S.; Patra, B.; Vidyasekar, P.; Sivanesan, D.; Vijayalakshmi, S.; Rajagopal, K.; Verma, R.S. Evaluation of platelet lysate as a substitute for FBS in explant and enzymatic isolation methods of human umbilical cord MSCs. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 12439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Rauch, C.; Feifel, E.; Amann, E.M.; Spötl, H.P.; Schennach, H.; Pfaller, W.; Gstraunthaler, G. Alternatives to the use of fetal bovine serum: Human platelet lysates as a serum substitute in cell culture media. Altex 2011, 28, 305–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gstraunthaler, G. Alternatives to the use of fetal bovine serum: Serum-free cell culture. Altex 2003, 20, 275–281. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Benjaminson, M.A.; Gilchriest, J.A.; Lorenz, M. In vitro edible muscle protein production system (MPPS): Stage 1, fish. Acta Astronaut. 2002, 51, 879–889. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Piletz, J.E.; Drivon, J.; Eisenga, J.; Buck, W.; Yen, S.; McLin, M.; Meruvia, W.; Amaral, C.; Brue, K. Human Cells Grown With or Without Substitutes for Fetal Bovine Serum. Cell Med. 2018, 10, 2155179018755140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tuomisto, H.L.; Teixeira de Mattos, M.J. Environmental Impacts of Cultured Meat Production. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 6117–6123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lynch, J.; Pierrehumbert, R. Climate Impacts of Cultured Meat and Beef Cattle. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2019, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Martens, P.; Su, B.; Deblomme, S. The Ecological Paw Print of Companion Dogs and Cats. BioScience 2019, 69, 467–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- York, R.; Bell, S.E. Energy transitions or additions?: Why a transition from fossil fuels requires more than the growth of renewable energy. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2019, 51, 40–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- European Parliament. Answer to Question: Potential Risks of Lab-Produced Synthetic Meat: Protecting Producers and Consumers. Available online: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/E-8-2018-004200-ASW_EN.html (accessed on 29 December 2020).
Approach | Main Advantages | Main Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Plant-based diets |
|
|
Plant-based substitutes |
| |
Insect-based food |
|
|
Cultured meat |
|
|
Challenge | Mitigation |
---|---|
Cell medium of non-animal origin | Use of efficient alternatives derived from plants or mushrooms |
Maintaining sterility of culture without antibiotics | Good laboratory practices, aseptic techniques, a sterile work area, sterile reagents and media, good personal hygiene, sterile handling |
Mimicking the texture | Use of non-animal scaffold based on polymers, safe for human consumption, e.g., alginate, chitosan, soy proteins. Incorporation of 3D-printing technology |
Controlling the micronutrients profile | Addition of essential micronutrients (e.g., cyanocobalamine) to medium and ensuring their efficient cellular uptake. Use of genetically modified cell lines expressing novel biochemical pathways of nutrients synthesis |
Matching the color | Addition of natural dyes (e.g., beetroot extract), extracellular hemoglobin or myoglobin, or induction of myoglobin expression under temporary lower oxygen levels |
Cost-efficiency | Scaling the production to the industrial level and rapid expansion of distribution channels |
Scaling the industrial production | Development of large bioreactors and associated infrastructure for cell cultures |
Non-discriminatory regulations | Co-operation with regulatory bodies and associations of conventional meat producers |
Consumer acceptance | Social campaigns, raising awareness on ethical, environmental, and epidemiological aspects of cultured meat. |
Lowering the carbon footprint of production | Investing in dedicated, energy independent production hubs powered by renewables |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Rzymski, P.; Kulus, M.; Jankowski, M.; Dompe, C.; Bryl, R.; Petitte, J.N.; Kempisty, B.; Mozdziak, P. COVID-19 Pandemic Is a Call to Search for Alternative Protein Sources as Food and Feed: A Review of Possibilities. Nutrients 2021, 13, 150. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010150
Rzymski P, Kulus M, Jankowski M, Dompe C, Bryl R, Petitte JN, Kempisty B, Mozdziak P. COVID-19 Pandemic Is a Call to Search for Alternative Protein Sources as Food and Feed: A Review of Possibilities. Nutrients. 2021; 13(1):150. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010150
Chicago/Turabian StyleRzymski, Piotr, Magdalena Kulus, Maurycy Jankowski, Claudia Dompe, Rut Bryl, James N. Petitte, Bartosz Kempisty, and Paul Mozdziak. 2021. "COVID-19 Pandemic Is a Call to Search for Alternative Protein Sources as Food and Feed: A Review of Possibilities" Nutrients 13, no. 1: 150. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010150