Mean Dietary Salt Intake in Vanuatu: A Population Survey of 755 Participants on Efate Island
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Survey Population and Sampling
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Biochemical Assessment
2.4. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
Estimated Salt Intake from Urine Samples
4. Discussion
Recommendations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Disclaimer
Appendix A
Characteristics | Spot Urine | 24-h Urine | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
(n = 483) | (n = 71) | ||
Age in years, mean (SD) | 36.6 (12.6) | 36.4 (12.6) | 0.898 |
Female, % | 49.2 | 49.2 | 1.000 |
Area, % | |||
Rural | 34.1 | 34.0 | 1.000 |
Urban | 66.0 | 66.0 | |
Completed Education, % | |||
No formal schooling | 2.5 | 1.8 | |
Primary level | 43.6 | 54.4 | 0.386 |
Secondary level | 41.7 | 36.1 | |
Tertiary level | 12.1 | 7.8 | |
Employed, % | 52.8 | 48.4 | 0.540 |
Height in cm, mean (SD) | 164.1 (7.9) | 165.2 (9.3) | 0.284 |
Weight in kg, mean (SD) | 73.6 (15.6) | 76.4 (15.1) | 0.162 |
Body mass index in kg/m2, mean (SD) | 27.3 (5.4) | 28.1 (5.8) | 0.271 |
Systolic blood pressure in mmHg, mean (SD) | 121.7 (19.2) | 123.9 (19.2) | 0.385 |
Diastolic blood pressure in mmHg, mean (SD) | 77.9 (12.7) | 79.9 (13.2) | 0.224 |
History of hypertension, % | 10.3 | 12.2 | 0.634 |
History of high cholesterol in blood, % | 3.7 | 4.3 | 0.799 |
History of heart attack, % | 1.8 | 2.5 | 0.766 |
History of stroke, % | 1.1 | 0.0 | 0.413 |
History of diabetes, % | 2.0 | 0.0 | 0.243 |
History of chronic kidney disease, % | 1.8 | 2.6 | 0.741 |
Appendix B
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Characteristics | Overall | Female | Male |
---|---|---|---|
Age in years, mean (SD) | 36.6 (12.6) | 35.6 (12.3) | 37.5 (12.8) |
Female, % | 49.2 | - | - |
Area, % | |||
Rural | 34.1 | 34.7 | 33.4 |
Urban | 66.0 | 65.3 | 66.6 |
Completed education, % | |||
No formal schooling | 2.5 | 2.8 | 2.2 |
Primary level | 43.6 | 47.9 | 39.6 |
Secondary level | 41.7 | 38.7 | 44.7 |
Tertiary level | 12.1 | 10.7 | 13.5 |
Employed, % | 52.8 | 43.7 | 61.6 |
Height in cm, mean (SD) | 164.1 (7.9) | 158.9 (5.7) | 169.1 (6.3) |
Weight in kg, mean (SD) | 73.6 (15.6) | 71.1 (16.3) | 76.0 (14.6) |
Body mass index in kg/m2, mean (SD) | 27.3 (5.4) | 28.1 (5.9) | 26.6 (4.8) |
Overweight or obese, % | 60.3 | 54.8 | 65.9 |
Systolic blood pressure in mmHg, mean (SD) | 121.7 (19.2) | 116.5 (18.1) | 126.8 (19.0) |
Diastolic blood pressure in mmHg, mean (SD) | 77.9 (12.7) | 76.4 (11.4) | 79.3 (13.8) |
History of hypertension, % | 10.3 | 10.9 | 9.8 |
Measured hypertension, % | 21.6 | 16.1 | 26.9 |
Pre-existing hypertension (those who had measured high blood pressure OR were taking Western hypertension medication prior to the survey), % | 24.0 | 18.8 | 29.0 |
History of high cholesterol in blood, % | 3.7 | 5.1 | 2.4 |
History of heart attack, % | 1.8 | 0.8 | 2.9 |
History of stroke, % | 1.1 | 0.4 | 1.7 |
History of diabetes, % | 2.0 | 1.0 | 3.1 |
History of chronic kidney disease, % | 1.8 | 1.0 | 2.6 |
n | Overall | Female | Male | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
24-h urine in g/day, mean (SD) | 71 | 5.9 (3.6) | 5.6 (3.7) | 6.2 (3.5) | 0.496 |
Spot urine using “INTERSALT with potassium” equation in g/day, mean (SD) | 483 | 7.2 (2.3) | 6.5 (1.7) | 7.8 (2.6) | <0.001 |
Salt intake above the 5 g WHO target, % | 483 | 84.4 | 81.1 | 87.6 |
© 2019 by the WHO. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Paterson, K.; Hinge, N.; Sparks, E.; Trieu, K.; Santos, J.A.; Tarivonda, L.; Snowdon, W.; Webster, J.; Johnson, C. Mean Dietary Salt Intake in Vanuatu: A Population Survey of 755 Participants on Efate Island. Nutrients 2019, 11, 916. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040916
Paterson K, Hinge N, Sparks E, Trieu K, Santos JA, Tarivonda L, Snowdon W, Webster J, Johnson C. Mean Dietary Salt Intake in Vanuatu: A Population Survey of 755 Participants on Efate Island. Nutrients. 2019; 11(4):916. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040916
Chicago/Turabian StylePaterson, Katherine, Nerida Hinge, Emalie Sparks, Kathy Trieu, Joseph Alvin Santos, Len Tarivonda, Wendy Snowdon, Jacqui Webster, and Claire Johnson. 2019. "Mean Dietary Salt Intake in Vanuatu: A Population Survey of 755 Participants on Efate Island" Nutrients 11, no. 4: 916. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040916