Energy, Macronutrient Intake, and Anthropometrics of Vegetarian, Vegan, and Omnivorous Children (1–3 Years) in Germany (VeChi Diet Study)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participants
2.2. Sample Size Estimation
2.3. Data Assessment
2.3.1. Nutrition Assessment
2.3.2. Anthropometrics
2.3.3. Covariates
2.3.4. Diet Group Classification
- vegetarian (no meat, sausage, fish, but with dairy products and/or eggs);
- vegan (no meat, sausage, fish, dairy products, or eggs);
- omnivorous (with meat and/or sausage and/or fish).
2.3.5. Data Analysis and Statistics
3. Results
3.1. Sample Characteristics
3.2. Energy and Nutrient Intakes
3.3. Anthropometrics
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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VG | VN | OM | |
---|---|---|---|
Total 3 | 127 (29.5) | 139 (32.3) | 164 (38.1) |
Sex 3 x | |||
Female | 64 (50.4) | 76 (54.7) | 83 (50.3) |
Male | 63 (49.6) | 63 (45.3) | 81 (49.4) |
Age 2 z | |||
Age_Diet (year) | 2.0 (1.4) | 1.8 (1.3) | 2.0 (1.5) |
Age_Anthro (year) | 1.9 (1.4) | 1.8 (1.4) | 2.0 (1.5) |
Child weight and height 1 z | |||
BW (kg) | 12.1 ± 2.3 | 12.0 ± 2.5 | 12.7 ± 2.6 |
BH (cm) | 86.6 ± 8.8 | 85.6 ± 8.8 | 88.2 ± 9.3 |
Urbanicity 3 x # | |||
Rural (<5,000) | 19 (15.0) | 28 (20.1) | 28 (17.2) |
Small-size urban (5,000-<20,000) | 16 (12.6) | 20 (14.4) | 17 (10.4) |
Medium-size urban (20,000-<100,000) | 33 (26.0) | 31 (22.3) | 31 (19.0) |
Metropolitan (≥100,000) | 59 (46.5) | 60 (43.2) | 87 (53.4) |
Breastfeeding | |||
Ever breastfed 3 y | 121 (95.3) | 138 (99.3) | 157 (95.7) |
Duration of exclusively breastfeeding (mo) 2 z | 5.0 (2.0) a | 6.0 (2.0) a,b | 5.0 (2.0) b |
Duration of total breastfeeding (mo) 2 z | 13.1 (10.0) a | 15.9 (10.0) a,b | 11.1 (7.0) b |
Breast milk intake in dietary record (if breastfed) (g/day) (n = 119) 2 z | 275.0 (186.3) | 303.3 (280.0) | 163.3 (316.7) |
SES (Winkler Index score D2004) 3 y | |||
Low (3–8) | 3 (2.4) | 2 (1.4) | 0 (0) |
Middle (9–14) | 31 (24.4) | 37 (26.6) | 30 (18.3) |
High (15–21) | 93 (73.2) | 100 (71.9) | 134 (81.7) |
Physical activity 3 x ## | |||
Less active (<4 times/week) | 71 (55.5) | 70 (50.0) | 64 (39.8) |
Active or very active | 57 (44.5) | 70 (50.0) | 97 (60.2) |
Birth weight categories 3 x # | |||
Small for gestational age (SGA) | 23 (17.8) | 26 (18.7) | 25 (15.5) |
Appropriate for gestational age (AGA) | 101 (78.3) | 99 (71.2) | 134 (83.2) |
Large for gestational age (LGA) | 5 (3.9) | 14 (10.1) | 2 (1.2) |
Season of dietary record 3 x | |||
Spring | 21 (16.5) | 45 (32.4) | 36 (22.0) |
Summer | 20 (15.7) | 17 (12.2) | 38 (23.2) |
Autumn | 41 (32.3) | 36 (25.9) | 43 (26.2) |
Winter | 45 (35.4) | 41 (29.5) | 47 (28.7) |
Paternal BMI and height | |||
BMI (kg/m2) 2 z ## | 24.5 (3.9) | 24.3 (4.1) | 25.7 (3.1) |
BH (cm) 1 z ## | 183 ± 7 a | 180 ± 7 a | 182 ± 7 |
Median (IQR) | Basic model (age, sex adjusted) | Final model | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
VG (n = 127) | VN (n = 139) | OM (n = 164) | p-value | Partial η2 | p-value | Partial η2 | |
TEI a, kcal/day | 956 (790–1084) | 986 (821–1186) | 974 (856–1099) | 0.281 | 0.006 | 0.055 | 0.015 |
DED b, kcal/g | 1.12 (0.98–1.33) | 1.05 (0.93–1.22) | 1.15 (1.02–1.35) | 0.009 # | 0.022 | 0.466 | 0.004 |
Protein c, g/kg BW | 2.26 (1.83–2.65) 1 | 2.25 (1.82–2.76) 2 | 2.54 (2.16–3.06) 1,2 | <0.0001 *** | 0.054 | <0.0001 *** | 0.122 |
Fat d, %E | 33.7 (29.7–36.6) | 33.6 (27.9–39.4) 1 | 32.6 (28.2–37.2) 1 | 0.781 | 0.001 | <0.0001 *** | 0.049 |
Carbohydrates e, %E | 53.6 (50.5–58.2) | 53.8 (49.4–59.3) 1 | 53.1 (47.9–57.1) 1 | 0.029 | 0.017 | <0.0001 *** | 0.070 |
Added sugars f, %E | 4.2 (1.1–6.6) | 2.1 (0.6–5.7) | 4.8 (2.2–8.7) | <0.0001 *** | 0.045 | 0.002 * ## | 0.032 |
Fiber g, g/1,000 kcal | 16.1 (13.8–20.0) 1 | 19.6 (16.3–24.1) 1 | 13.4 (10.1–16.6) 1 | <0.0001 *** | 0.231 | <0.0001 *** | 0.290 |
± SD | Basic Model (age, sex adjusted) | Final Model | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
z-Score | VG (n = 127) | VN (n = 139) | OM (n = 164) | p-value | Partial η2 | p-value | Partial η2 |
Weight-for-Height a | 0.11 ± 0.95 | 0.16 ± 1.08 | 0.23 ± 0.96 | 0.540 | 0.003 | 0.488 | 0.004 |
Height-for-Age b | 0.11 ± 1.34 | 0.01 ± 1.26 | 0.13 ± 1.01 | 0.569 | 0.003 | 0.055 # | 0.016 |
Weight-for-Age c | 0.17 ± 0.99 | 0.11 ± 0.93 | 0.25 ± 0.87 | 0.344 | 0.005 | 0.061 | 0.014 |
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Weder, S.; Hoffmann, M.; Becker, K.; Alexy, U.; Keller, M. Energy, Macronutrient Intake, and Anthropometrics of Vegetarian, Vegan, and Omnivorous Children (1–3 Years) in Germany (VeChi Diet Study). Nutrients 2019, 11, 832. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040832
Weder S, Hoffmann M, Becker K, Alexy U, Keller M. Energy, Macronutrient Intake, and Anthropometrics of Vegetarian, Vegan, and Omnivorous Children (1–3 Years) in Germany (VeChi Diet Study). Nutrients. 2019; 11(4):832. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040832
Chicago/Turabian StyleWeder, Stine, Morwenna Hoffmann, Katja Becker, Ute Alexy, and Markus Keller. 2019. "Energy, Macronutrient Intake, and Anthropometrics of Vegetarian, Vegan, and Omnivorous Children (1–3 Years) in Germany (VeChi Diet Study)" Nutrients 11, no. 4: 832. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040832
APA StyleWeder, S., Hoffmann, M., Becker, K., Alexy, U., & Keller, M. (2019). Energy, Macronutrient Intake, and Anthropometrics of Vegetarian, Vegan, and Omnivorous Children (1–3 Years) in Germany (VeChi Diet Study). Nutrients, 11(4), 832. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040832