Timing of Breakfast, Lunch, and Dinner. Effects on Obesity and Metabolic Risk
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Lunch Timing Affects Weight Loss Effectiveness
3. How Does the Timing of Food Intake Affect Metabolism?
4. Timing of Food Intake Does Affect Everyone or it Depends on Genetics?
5. Late Dinner
5.1. Melatonin and Late Eating
5.2. “Circadian” Timing of Food Intake Versus “Clock” Timing
6. Breakfast
Contradictory Results in Breakfast Skipping and Weight Loss
7. Summary
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Garaulet M et al., 2013 | Observational study | 420 obese subjects | 42 ± 11 | 50% Women | Lunch timing (early eaters (lunch before 3 p.m.), late eaters (lunch after 3 p.m.)) | Weight loss effectiveness | 1. Late eaters lost less weight and displayed a slower weight loss rate than early eaters | [15] |
2. Late eaters were more evening types, had less energetic breakfasts and skipped breakfast more frequently than early eaters | ||||||||
Ruiz-Lozano T et al., 2016 | Observational prospective study | 270 subjects | 52 ± 11 | 78% Women | Lunch timing (early eaters (lunch before 3 p.m.), late lunch eaters (lunch after 3 p.m.)) | Weight loss evolution after bariatric surgery | 1. The percentage of late eaters was significantly higher in the primarily poor weight-loss-responders (~70%) than in both secondarily poor weight-loss-responders (~42%) and good weight-loss-responders (~37%) | [17] |
2. Primarily poor weight-loss-responders had lunch later as compared to good and secondarily poor weight-loss-responders | ||||||||
Bandín C et al., 2015 | Randomized, crossover trial | 32 subjects | 24 ± 4 | Women | Lunch timing (early eaters (lunch at 1 p.m.), late eaters (lunch at 4:30 p.m.)) | Energy-expenditure, glucose-tolerance and circadian-related variables | 1. Eating late is associated with decreased resting-energy-expenditure, decreased fasting carbohydrate oxidation, decreased glucose-tolerance, blunted daily profile in free cortisol concentrations, and decreased the thermal effect of food on wrist temperature | [11] |
Collado M.C et al., 2018 | Randomized, crossover trial | 10 subjects | 25 ± 6 | Women | Lunch timing (early eaters (lunch at 2 p.m.), late eaters (lunch at 4 p.m.)) | Daily rhythms of human salivary microbiota | 1. Eating the main meal late inverts the daily rhythm of salivary microbiota diversity which may have a deleterious effect on the metabolism of the host | [18] |
Garaulet M et al., 2016 | Observational study | 1287 subjects | 39 ± 12 | 82% Women | Lunch timing (12 p.m. until 4:30 p.m.) | Weight-loss effectiveness | 1. Variability at the PLIN1 locus is associated with variability in weight loss | [19] |
2. Eating late is related to lower weight-loss effectiveness among carriers of the AA genotype at the PLIN1 14995AT variant | ||||||||
Xiao Q et al., 2019 | Observational study | 872 subjects | ≥18 | 53% Women | 24-h dietary recalls (during one year every two months) | Interaction with macronutrient intake and chronotype | 1. Higher dietary consumption after waking up and lower consumption close to bedtime associate with lower BMI, but the relationship differs by chronotype 2. A higher percentage of carbohydrates and protein close to bedtime was associated with higher odds of being overweight or obese, particularly in people with a later chronotype | [20] |
Yoshida J et al., 2018 | Longitudinal study | 8153 subjects | 47 ± 8 | 60% Men | Night eating (“dinner before bed” (within two hours before bedtime) and “snacks after dinner” (snacks after dinner) | Night eating habits and metabolic syndrome | 1. In women, there was an association between eating habits at night and metabolic syndrome | [21] |
2. Night eating habits were associated with dyslipidemia in men and women | ||||||||
Kutsuma A et al., 2014 | Observational study (Cross-sectional) | 60,800 subjects | 41 ± 12 | 67% Men | Breakfast (skipping) and late-night eating (within two hours of bedtime) | Breakfast skipping, late-night-dinner eating, and metabolic syndrome | 1. Skipping breakfast alone and late-night-dinner alone were not associated with metabolic syndrome | [22] |
2. Habitual breakfast skipping concomitant with late-night eating may represent poorer eating behavior than skipping breakfast alone and associated with metabolic syndrome | ||||||||
Chen HJ et al., 2019 | Observational study (Cross-sectional) | 1283 subjects | ≥19 | 56% Men | Energy intake at different times (morning (5–9 a.m.), noon (11:30 a.m.–1:30 p.m.), evening (5:30–8:30 p.m.)) | Total and LDL cholesterol levels | 1. Transferring 100 kcal of energy or fat intake at night to the morning or noon decreased LDL cholesterol 2. Elevated total and LDL cholesterol were positively associated with nighttime energy and fat intake | [23] |
Nakajima K et al., 2015 | Observational study (Cross-sectional) | 61,364 subjects | 46 ± 10 | 66% Men | Breakfast (skipping) and late-night eating (within two hours of bedtime) | Night eating, skipping breakfast and hyperglycemia | 1. Hyperglycemia in the general Japanese population associated with late-night dinner eating alone, but not with breakfast skipping alone | [24] |
Morgan L M et al., 2012 | Randomized crossover study | 6 subjects | 30 ± 4 | 67% Women | Energy intake at different times (low glycemic index and high glycemic index, morning and night, at breakfast (9:30 a.m.), lunch (1:30 p.m.), dinner (8:30 p.m.)) | Meal timing and glycemic index on glucose and insulin secretion | 1. Lower insulin sensitivity in high energy consumed in the evening | [25] |
2. Both meal timing and glycemic index affected glucose tolerance and insulin secretion | ||||||||
Jakubowicz et al., 2013 | Randomized, open-label, parallel-arm study | 93 subjects | 46 ± 7 | Women | Energy intake at different times (breakfast (8 a.m.), lunch (1 p.m.), dinner (7 p.m.)) | High caloric intake at breakfast vs. dinner influences weight loss | 1. High-calorie breakfast with reduced intake at dinner is beneficial | [10] |
Rubio-Sastre P et al., 2014 | Placebo-controlled, single-blind design study | 21 subjects | 24 ± 6 | Women | Morning (9 a.m.) and night melatonin supplementation (9 p.m.) | Melatonin administration impairs glucose tolerance | 1. Acute melatonin supplementation (5 mg) impaired glucose tolerance in both, morning and evening time | [26] |
Lopez-Minguez J et al., 2017 | Randomized, crossover trial | 40 subjects | 42 ± 10 | Women | Dinner timing (early dinner (8 p.m.), late dinner (11 p.m.)) | Late dinner and glucose tolerance | 1. The concurrence of meal timing (late dinner) with elevated endogenous melatonin concentrations impaired glucose tolerance | [27] |
2. The effect was stronger in MTNR1B risk-carriers (GG) than in non-carriers (CC) | ||||||||
Smith KJ et al., 2010 | Longitudinal study | 2184 subjects | 7 to 15 26 to 36 | 53% Women | Skipping breakfast | Cardiometabolic risk factors | 1. Those who skipped breakfast in both childhood and adulthood had higher waist circumference and higher fasting insulin, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol concentrations than did those who ate breakfast | [28] |
2. Skipping breakfast over a long period may have detrimental effects on cardiometabolic health | ||||||||
Reutrakul S et al., 2014 | Observational study | 194 subjects | 54 ± 13 | 71% Women | Skipping breakfast | Chronotype and glycemic control in type 2 diabetes | 1. Breakfast skipping is associated with a later chronotype | [29] |
2. Later chronotype and breakfast skipping both contribute to poorer glycemic control, as indicated by higher glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1C) levels | ||||||||
Jakubowicz et al., 2012 | Randomized crossover study | 193 subjects | 47 ± 7 | 60% Women | Energy intake timing (low carbohydrate diet, low carbohydrate breakfast, and high carbohydrate enriched breakfast diet) | Weight loss, ghrelin levels, and appetite scores | 1. A high carbohydrate and high protein breakfast may prevent weight regain by reducing diet-induced compensatory changes in hunger, cravings and ghrelin suppression | [30] |
de Castro JM et al., 2004 | Observational study | 886 subjects | 36 ± 14 | 57% Women | Energy intake at different times (6–9:59 a.m., 10 a.m.–1:59 p.m., 2–5:59 p.m., 6–9:59 p.m., 10:00 p.m.–1:59 a.m.) | Food intake influences overall intake | 1. Energy intake in the morning is particularly satiating and can reduce the total amount ingested for the day | [31] |
2. Energy intake in the late-night lacks satiating value and can result in greater overall daily intake | ||||||||
Kant AK et al., 2015 | Observational study | 13,298 subjects | ≥20 | 52% Men | Skipping breakfast (energy intake at different times) | Eating behaviors, time of eating, and dietary intake | 1. Lunch meal provided more energy on the no-breakfast day than on the breakfast day | [32] |
Lopez-Minguez J et al., 2019 | Observational study | 106 subjects | 52 ± 6 | Women | Timing of food intake | Heritability of the timing of food intake | 1. Genetic factors contributed to a higher degree to the timing of breakfast (56%) than the timing of lunch (38%) or dinner (0%) | [33] |
Mekary RA et al., 2013 | Observational study | 1560 subjects | 66 ± 7 | Women | Skipping breakfast (energy intake at different times) | Eating patterns and type 2 diabetes risk | 1. Irregular breakfast consumption was associated with a higher type 2 diabetes risk | [34] |
Dashti HS et al., 2019 | Observational study | 193,860 subjects | ≥19 | 55% Women | Skipping breakfast | Genetic variants of skipping breakfast | 1. Proxy-phenotype Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS) identified six genetic variants for breakfast skipping, linking clock regulation with food timing | [35] |
2. Skipping breakfast was causal of obesity | ||||||||
Lane JM et al., 2016 | Observational study | 100,420 subjects | 40–69 years | 55% Women | Chronotype | Genetic variants of chronotype | 1. The study reports the discovery of 12 genetic loci associated with chronotype | [36] |
Sievert K et al., 2019 | Systematic review and meta-analysis | 12 studies | ≥18 | 70% Women | Regular breakfast consumption | Weight change and energy intake | 1. The addition of breakfast might not be a good strategy for weight loss | [37] |
2. Caution is needed when recommending breakfast for weight loss in adults, as it could have the opposite effect |
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Lopez-Minguez, J.; Gómez-Abellán, P.; Garaulet, M. Timing of Breakfast, Lunch, and Dinner. Effects on Obesity and Metabolic Risk. Nutrients 2019, 11, 2624. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11112624
Lopez-Minguez J, Gómez-Abellán P, Garaulet M. Timing of Breakfast, Lunch, and Dinner. Effects on Obesity and Metabolic Risk. Nutrients. 2019; 11(11):2624. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11112624
Chicago/Turabian StyleLopez-Minguez, Jesus, Purificación Gómez-Abellán, and Marta Garaulet. 2019. "Timing of Breakfast, Lunch, and Dinner. Effects on Obesity and Metabolic Risk" Nutrients 11, no. 11: 2624. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11112624
APA StyleLopez-Minguez, J., Gómez-Abellán, P., & Garaulet, M. (2019). Timing of Breakfast, Lunch, and Dinner. Effects on Obesity and Metabolic Risk. Nutrients, 11(11), 2624. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11112624