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Article

Food Sources of Energy and Nutrients of Public Health Concern and Nutrients to Limit with a Focus on Milk and other Dairy Foods in Children 2 to 18 Years of Age: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011–2014

1
Louisiana State University Agricultural Center (Emeritus), School of Nutrition and Food Science, 143 Kenilworth Parkway, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA
2
USDA/ARS/CNRC, 1100 Bates St., Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
3
Nutrition Impact, LLC, 9725 D Drive North, Battle Creek, MI 49014, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Nutrients 2018, 10(8), 1050; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10081050
Submission received: 3 July 2018 / Revised: 30 July 2018 / Accepted: 2 August 2018 / Published: 9 August 2018

Abstract

:
Many children are not meeting current nutrient recommendations. The objective of this study was to determine the food sources of energy, nutrients of public health concern, and nutrients to limit with a focus on dairy foods. Twenty-four-hour dietary recall data from children 2–5 (n = 1511), 6–11 (n = 2193), and 12–18 years (n = 2172) participating in NHANES 2011–2014 were analyzed. Energy, fiber, calcium, potassium, vitamin D, added sugars, saturated fatty acids (SFA), and sodium intakes were sample-weighted and ranked on percentage contribution to the diet using specific food group intake and disaggregated data for dairy foods. For children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, milk, sweet bakery products, and sweetened beverages, respectively were the top food sources of energy, respectively. For calcium, potassium, and vitamin D, milk was the top ranked food source in all age groups. For children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, milk, sweet bakery products, and pizza, respectively were the top three ranked food sources of SFA; and sugar sweetened beverages and sweet bakery products were to top two food group sources of added sugars. Cured meats/poultry, pizza, and pizza, respectively, were the top ranked food sources of sodium for the three age groups. Identification of food sources of these nutrients can help health professionals implement appropriate dietary recommendations and plan age-appropriate interventions.

1. Introduction

Dairy products are rich in three of the four nutrients of public health concern: calcium, vitamin D, and potassium [1]. The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee (DGAC) determined that several nutrients: vitamins A, E, and C; folate; magnesium; and iron (in adolescent females) were under consumed relative to the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) or Adequate Intake (AI) levels set by the Institute of Medicine and these were characterized as “shortfall nutrients”. The DGAC confirmed that fiber, calcium, vitamin D, and potassium remained nutrients of public health concern since underconsumption has been linked to adverse health outcomes [2]. In children 2–18 years of age (years), milk has previously been shown to be the primary source of calcium, vitamin D, and potassium [3]. Dairy products, especially milk and yogurt, also provide protein, saturated fatty acids (SFA), riboflavin, vitamin B12, and phosphorus.
Modeling techniques with data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) have shown that the prevalence of inadequate calcium and potassium intakes could be reduced if additional servings of dairy foods were consumed [4,5]. However, per captia consumption of fluid milk has declined sharply since 1975, when it was 247 pounds per person, to 154 pounds per person in 2016. The lack of nutrients from fluid milk has been partially offset by an increase in cheese and yogurt consumption over this time span [6].
Although dairy foods contribute to shortfall nutrients, there is concern that these foods may also contribute high levels of energy, added sugars, from flavored milk and sweet dairy drinks; SFA; and sodium—all of which may lead to chronic diseases in older adolescents and adults [7,8]. There has been some speculation that plant-based drinks may provide health benefits over dairy foods. However, modeling studies, using NHANES 2007–2010 data, have shown that when comparing the usual intake of macronutrients and shortfall nutrients of three dietary scenarios that increased intake of: (1) plant-based foods; (2) protein-rich plant foods; and (3) dairy foods, including milk, cheese, and yogurt. The dairy model reduced the percent of children not meeting the EAR for calcium, vitamins A and D, magnesium, and protein, while sodium and SFA intakes increased [9]. Thus, it is very important to understand more fully the food sources that provide these important sources of nutrients in dairy; this can be done in part by disaggregating the data.
To help assuage nutrient shortfalls, the recommendation for daily dairy intake for children is age dependent: 2 cup equivalents (CE) for children 2–3 years of age (years), 2.5 CE for children 4–8 years, and 3 CE for children 9–18 years [10]. In general, young children meet the recommendations for dairy; on average, males and females 2–5 years consume 2.04 and 2.03 CE of total dairy, respectively [11]. However, as children get older, consumption goes down, especially in females. Males and females 6–11 years consume 2.53 and 1.90 CE, respectively; and males and females 12–19 years consume 2.40 and 1.61 CE, respectively [11]. These data are concerning, especially for females, since although the recommendation for dairy intake does not change with gender, in general females need [12] and consume [13] less energy than males. In addition, it is concerning that consumption declines with age.
Understanding food sources of energy, shortfall nutrients, and nutrients to limit is important at any age, including children. Dietary influences and eating behaviors established in childhood play an important role in growth and development in children [14,15]. They also provide a reasonable basis for adult dietary preferences [16]. Although the majority of information linking diet to chronic disease is available for adults, there is some evidence suggesting that encouraging consumption of foods that provide shortfall nutrients while reducing nutrients to limit may reduce risk factors for chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease (CVD) [17], hypertension [18], insulin sensitivity [19], obesity [20], and abdominal adiposity [21].
Identifying food sources, including mixed-dish foods—such as pizza or Mexican dishes—that provide energy, shortfall nutrients, and nutrients to limit can help nutrition educators design age-specific programs to help them modify food and nutrient intake [22,23]. Targeted nutrition education may have an indirect positive effect of increasing children’s intakes of food groups that provide shortfall nutrients, while limiting foods that provide nutrients to limit, thus moving children closer to meeting dietary recommendations [10,24]. The purpose of this study was to examine food sources providing energy, shortfall nutrients, and nutrients to limit in three age groups of children using data from the NHANES 2011–2014. This is the first detailed list of food sources in children (2–18 years) since the NHANES 2003–2006 studies [3] and is the first to examine food sources in three age groups of children. Additionally, given milk, cheese, and yogurt are used as ingredients in many mixed dishes, which are not captured in a simple analyses of food sources of nutrients, this study also determined the nutrients from milk, cheese, and yogurt in mixed dishes thereby obtaining a more thorough contribution of dairy products to the diet of children.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Overview, Study Population, and Analytic Sample

The NHANES is a program of studies designed to assess the health and nutritional status of free-living individuals in the US. Online information about the NHANES, including the purpose [25], plan and operations, sampling and weighting procedures, analytic guidelines [26], response rates, and population totals [27], is available. Data from children 2–18 years of age (years) participating in the NHANES from 2011 to 2014 were used for these analyses. The final analytic sample had 5876 participants; children were separated into three age groups: 2–5 years (n = 1511), 6–11 years (n = 2193), and 12–18 years (n = 2172). The National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) Research Ethics Review Board has approved the use of human subjects for NHANES studies [28]; and further institutional review was not required.

2.2. Dietary Intake

Dietary intake data for the NHANES used in this study were obtained from the in-person 24-h dietary recall interview [29] using an Automated Multiple-Pass Method [30]. Although a second, telephone interview, was also taken 3 to 10 days after the in-person interview, only the in-person interview was used because of the difference in the methodology for collecting the two recalls. A single 24-h dietary recall administered in a large population can provide data to adequately estimate population mean intakes [31]. Survey participants 12 years and older completed their own dietary interview; children 6 to 11 years were assisted by an adult, usually a parent; and parents/guardians reported for children younger than 6 years [29].

2.3. Food Groupings and Composition

The relevant What We Eat in America (WWEIA), the dietary component of NHANES, food category classification systems [32] were used to classify all foods. The WWEIA food categories contain 15 main groups: milk and dairy; protein foods; mixed dishes; grains; snacks and sweets; fruit; vegetables; beverages, nonalcoholic; alcoholic beverages; water; fats and oils; condiments and sauces; sugars; infant formula and baby food; and other. The WWEIA food categories also consists of 47 subgroups. For example, for the milk and dairy main group, the subgroups were milk, flavored milk, cheese, dairy drinks and substitutes, and yogurt. For these analyses we focused on the 47 subgroups.
Using the relevant Food Patterns Equivalent Database [33] milk, cheese, and yogurt servings of non-dairy foods and especially mixed dishes were determined. The nutrient composition in the relevant Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies FNDDS 2011–2012 and 2013–2014 [34] linked to SR 26 and SR 28 respectively [1] for milk, NFS (not further specified); cheese, NFS; and yogurt, NFS was used to assess energy and nutrient contribution of dairy servings non-dairy foods. The nutrients reported herein are the nutrients of public health concern [2]: dietary fiber, calcium, vitamin D, and potassium; and nutrients to limit: SFA, added sugars, and sodium.
Data are reported as specific food group (SFG) intake, adjusted intake, and delta intake. Specific food group intake is intake from the dairy food groups (milk, cheese, and yogurt). Adjusted intake is the total daily intake after nutrients from dairy from non-dairy foods (e.g., mixed dishes) have been included, and reflect the disaggregation. Delta intake is the amount of nutrients from dairy in non-dairy foods that was added to or removed from the specific food group intake to calculate the adjusted intake. The consumer number (n) for delta was the number of subjects that consumed dairy from mixed dishes.

2.4. Statistical Analyses

Data were analyzed using SAS 9.2 and SUDAAN release 11.0 (Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA) with survey parameters including strata, primary sampling units, and dietary sample weights [26]. Means and standard errors (SE) of energy and nutrient intakes from the total diet and from each food group were determined using PROC DESCRIPT of SUDAAN. Percentages of total energy and nutrient intakes from each food group were calculated from the average consumption of each food. Mean intakes were tabulated by ranked order to 1% of consumption.

3. Results

3.1. Contribution of Foods to Percent Energy Intake

Total mean daily energy consumption was 1535 ± 19 kcals ± SE; 1953 ± 23.0 kcals; and 2056.0 ± 33.2 kcals, respectively for children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, respectively. Table 1 shows the food sources contributing at least 1% of percent energy intake from the WWEIA sub-categories. There were 31, 29, and 31 food sources that contributed at least 1% of SFG energy intake of children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, respectively. Using SFG intake data (kcals; % of energy) for children 2–5 years, milk (136 kcals; 8.9% of energy), sweet bakery products (116 kcals; 7.6%), and grain-based mixed dishes (86 kcals; 5.6%) were ranked as the top food sources of energy. Cheese was ranked as the 18th food source of energy (39 kcals; 2.5%). Using adjusted (disaggregated) data, milk and sweet bakery products remained the two top ranked foods (151 kcals; 9.8% and 115 kcals; 7.5%) with mean delta intakes of +15 and −1 kcals, respectively. Cheese was the fifth ranked energy source (74 kcals; 4.8%).
The top SFG sources of energy for children 6–11 years were sweet bakery products (164 kcals; 8.4%), pizza (132 kcals; 6.8%), and sweetened beverages (112 kcals; 5.7%), with milk and cheese ranked 7th (96 kcals; 4.9%) and 21st (38 kcals; 1.9%), respectively. Using adjusted data, sweet bakery products and milk ranked first (163 kcals; 8.3%) and second (117 kcals; 6.0%), respectively, with mean delta intakes of −2 and +21 kcals.
For children 12–18 years, the top SFG intakes of food sources were sweetened beverages (162 kcals; 7.9%), sweet bakery products (139 kcals; 6.8%), and pizza (135 kcals; 6.6%), with milk and cheese ranked 7th (96 kcals; 4.7%) and 18th (42 kcals; 2.1%), respectively. Using adjusted data sweetened beverages and sweet bakery products continued to rank first (160 kcals; 7.8%) and second (137 kcals; 6.7%); respectively; each with a delta value of −1 kcals. Milk (117 kcals; 5.7%) and cheese (118 kcals; 5.7%) were the fourth and fifth ranked food groups, with mean delta intakes of +21.5 kcals and +74 kcals.

3.2. Contribution of Foods to Percent Fiber Intake

Total mean daily dietary fiber intake was 11.8 ± 0.2 g; 14.6 ± 0.3 g; and 14.7 ± 0.3 g, for children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, respectively. Table 2 shows the food sources contributing to at least 1% of daily fiber intake. In all three age groups there were 22 different food groups that contributed at least 1% of fiber intake. For the specific food group intakes, fruit was the top contributor to fiber intake with a mean of 2 g; 17.2%; 1.9 g; 12.8%, and 1.5 g; 10%, for each age group, respectively. For children 2–5 years, SFG intake was followed by bread, rolls, tortillas (1.2 g; 10%) and ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) (0.9 g; 7.4%). For children 6–11 years, bread, rolls, tortillas (1.5 g; 10%) and mixed dishes—pizza (1.1%; 7.4%) followed; finally, in children 12–18 years bread, rolls, tortillas (1.5 g; 10%), was followed by mixed dishes—Mexican (1.1 g; 7.7%). There were no differences in rank order after adjustment of any of the foods in all three age groups and delta intake was zero.

3.3. Contribution of Foods to Percent Calcium Intake

Total mean daily calcium intake was 971.5 ± 23.8 mg; 1074.5 ± 19.1 mg; and 1056.9 ± 21.2 for children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, respectively. Table 3 shows the food sources contributing at least 1% of total calcium intake. There were 20, 19, and 21 food sources that contributed at least 1% of SFG calcium intake of children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, respectively. Using SFG intake data for children 2–5 years, milk (318 mg; 32.7% of calcium), cheese (99 mg; 10.2%), and flavored milk (74 mg; 7.6%) were ranked as the top food sources of calcium. Using adjusted data, the rank order in children 2–5 years remained the same; however the percentages changed for: milk (352 mg; 36.2%; +34 mg) and cheese (190 mg; 19.5%; +90.6 mg), but not for flavored milk (74 mg; 7.6%; 0.0 mg).
The top three SFG intake sources of calcium for children 6–11 years were milk (238 mg; 22.2%), cheese (107 mg; 10.0%), and pizza (89 mg; 5.7%). Using adjusted data, milk remained the top source of calcium (287; 26.7%; +49.1 mg), with cheese ranked second (282 mg; 26.2%; +174.6 mg); flavored milk ranked third (88 mg; 8.2%; 0.0 mg). Pizza dropped to the 20th source of calcium (10 mg; 0.9%; +175 mg).
Milk (240 mg; 22.7%), cheese (114 mg; 10.8%), and pizza (86 mg; 8.1%) were the SFG intake top food sources of calcium in children 12–18 years. Using adjusted data, cheese was the top ranked food (301 mg; 28.5%; +187 mg), followed by milk (290 mg; 27.4%; +50 mg); pizza, the third rank food in the SFG data, fell to 23rd (7 mg; 0.7%; −79 mg) and bread, rolls, and tortillas was the third most common source of calcium (56 mg; 5.3%; −1 mg).

3.4. Contribution of Foods to Percent Vitamin D Intake

Total mean daily vitamin D intake was 6.2 ± 0.2 mcg; 5.7 ± 0.1 mcg; and 5.3 ± 0.2 mcg, respectively, for children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years. Table 4 shows the food sources contributing at least 1% of vitamin D intake. There were 11, 14, and 14 different SFG sources that contributed at least 1% of the vitamin D intake of children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, respectively. Using SFG intake data for children 2–5 years, milk (3.3 mcg; 52.6%; 0.2 mcg), flavored milk (0.8 mcg; 12.0%; 0.0 mcg), and (0.5 mcg; 7.5%) were the top food sources of vitamin D. Using adjusted data, the rank order remained the same with milk (3.5 mcg; 55.7%; +0.2 mcg), flavored milk (12 mcg; 12%), and RTEC (7.5 mcg; 7.5%; 0.0 mcg). Eggs were the highest-ranking (fourth) non-fortified SFG food group consumed by this age group (0.3 mcg; 4.4%); however, after adjustment, eggs fell to fifth with a mean of 0.2 mcg; 3.8%.
For children 6–11 years, milk (2.7 mcg; 46.7%), flavored milk (0.9 mcg; 15.2%), and RTEC (0.6 mcg; 9.9%) were the top SFG sources of vitamin D, respectively. Using adjusted data, the rank order remained (2.7 mcg; 46.7%; +0.3 mcg), flavored milk (0.9 mcg; 15.2%; 0.0 mcg), and RTEC (0.6 mcg; 9.9%; 0.0 mcg). Eggs were the highest-ranking non-fortified SFG and adjusted food source of vitamin D (0.2 mcg; 4.1% and 0.2 mcg; 3.5%), respectively.
For children 12–18 years, milk (2.4 mcg; 45.6%), RTEC (0.5 mcg; 9.2%), and flavored milk (0.4 mcg; 7.6%), were the top three SFG food sources of vitamin D. Using adjusted data, milk (2.7 mcg; 51.3%; +0.3 mcg), cheese (0.5 mcg; 9.6%; +0.2 mcg), and RTEC (0.9 mcg; 9.1%; 0.0 mcg) were the top three food sources of vitamin D.

3.5. Contribution of Foods to Percent Potassium Intake

Total mean daily potassium intake was 1981.8 ± 39.5 mg; 2197.9 ± 27.0 mg; and 2308.2 ± 44.9 mg for children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, respectively. Table 5 shows the food sources contributing at least 1% of potassium intake. There were 25, 25, and 26 food sources that contributed at least 1% of potassium intake of children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, respectively. Using SFG intake data for children 2–5 years, milk (375 mg; 18.9%), fruit (190 mg; 9.6%), and 100% fruit juice (169 mg; 8.5%) were the top food sources of potassium. When the data were adjusted, the rank order of the top food sources of potassium remained the same: milk (417 mg; 21.1%; +41.8 mg), fruit (190 mg; 9.6%; delta 0 mg), and 100% fruit juice (169 mg; 8.5%; delta 0 mg).
In children 6–11 years, milk (283 mg; 12.9%), fruit (160 mg; 7.3%), and flavored milk (125 mg; 5.7%) were the three SFG top sources of potassium. Using adjusted data, the rank order remained the same with milk (344 mg; 15.6%; +60 mg), fruit (160 mg; 7.3%; −0.1), and flavored milk (125 mg; 5.7%; 0 g) as the top three sources of potassium intake.
In the oldest group of children, the top SFG food sources of potassium were milk (milk 286 mg; 12.4%), white potatoes (145 mg; 6.3%), and fruit (129 mg; 5.6%). The rank order remained the same for adjusted data, with milk (347 mg; 15%; +61 mg), white potatoes (141 mg; 6.1%; −4 mg), and fruit (129 mg; 5.6%; 0.0 mcg), respectively.

3.6. Contribution of Foods to Percent Added Sugars Intake

Total mean daily added sugars intake was 12.0 ± 0.3 teaspoon equivalents (tsp eq) (15.6% of total energy); 18.2 ± 0.4 tsp eq (18.6% energy); and 20.2 ± 0.5 tsp eq (19.6% energy) for children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, respectively. Table 6 shows the food sources contributing at least 1% of added sugars intake. For SFG intake, 15, 14, and 11 food groups contributed to at least 1% of added sugars intake for the three age groups, respectively. For the youngest group of children, the top three SFG and adjusted food intakes were sweetened beverages (3 tsp eq; 25.3%; 0.0 tsp eq), sweet bakery products (1.9 tsp eq; 16%; 0.0 tsp eq), and other desserts (0.9 tsp eq; 7.5%; 0.0 tsp eq). For children 6–11 years, the top three SFG and adjusted food intakes were sweetened beverages (5.8 tsp eq; 32.1%; 0.0 tsp eq (delta values)), sweet bakery products (2.8 tsp eq; 15.3%; 0.0 tsp eq), and candy (1.5 tsp eq; 8.2%; 0.0 tsp eq). For children 12–18 years, the top three food groups in the SFG and adjusted intakes were sweetened beverages (8.6 tsp eq; 42.5%; 0.0 tsp eq), sweet bakery products (2.4 tsp eq; 11.8%; 0.0 tsp eq), and coffee and tea (1.7 tsp eq; 1.7%; 0.0 tsp eq).

3.7. Contribution of Foods to Percent Saturated Fatty Acids (SFA) Intake

Total mean daily SFA intake was 20.1 ± 0.6 g (11.8% total energy); 26.0 ± 0.5 g (12% energy); and 26.0 ± 0.5 g (11.4% energy) for 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, respectively. Table 7 shows the food sources contributing at least 1% of SFA intake. There were 23, 21, and 24 food sources that contributed at least 1% of SFA consumed by children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, respectively. Using SFG data for children 2–5 years, milk (3.4 g; 16.7%), sweet bakery products (1.8 g; 8.8%) and cheese (1.7 g; 8.2%) were the top sources of dietary SFA. Using adjusted data, the top ranked contributors to SFA intake in children 2–5 years were milk (3.7 g; 18.4%; +0.3 g(delta value)), cheese (3.3 g; 16.4%; 0.0 g), and sweet bakery products (1.8 g; 8.7%; +1.6 g).
For children 6–11 years, sweet bakery products (2.6 g; 10%), pizza (2.3 g; 9%), and milk (2.2 g; 8.3%) were the top three sources of SFA. Using adjusted data, cheese was the single highest contributor of SFA to the diet (4.7 g; 8.3%; +3.2 g), followed by milk (2.6 g; 10.1%; +0.5 g), and sweet bakery products (2.6 g; 9.9%; 0.0 g). Using these adjusted data, pizza dropped to 11th (0.8 g; 3.2%).
For children 12–18 years, pizza (2.4 g; 9.1%), sweet bakery products (2.2 g; 8.6%), and milk (2.1 g; 8.1%) were the top food sources contributing to SFA intake. Using adjusted data, cheese ranked first (5.1 g; 19.7%; +3.4 g), followed by milk (2.6 g; 10%; +0.5 g), and sweet bakery products (2.2 g; 8.5%; 0.0 g).

3.8. Contribution of Foods to Percent Sodium Intake

Total daily mean intake of sodium was 2267.4 ± 37.3 mg; 3036 ± 40.1 mg; and 3394.8 ± 66.6 mg for children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, respectively. Table 8 shows the food sources contributing at least 1% of sodium intake. There were 28, 28, and 26 food sources that contributed at least 1% of sodium consumed by children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years, respectively. Using SFG data for children 2–5 years, cured meats/poultry (183 mg; 8.1%); grain-based mixed dishes (155 mg; 6.8%); and bread, rolls, and tortillas (144 mg; 6.4%) were the top ranked contributors of sodium to the diet. Using adjusted data, cheese was the top contributor to sodium intake (188 mg; 8.3%; +88 mg); followed by cured meats/poultry (182 mg; 8%; −0.3 mg); and breads, rolls, and tortillas (144 mg; 6.4%; −0.4 mg).
For children 6–11 years, pizza was the top SFG contributor of sodium to the diet (286 mg; 9.4%), followed by Mexican foods (215 mg; 7.1%), and cured meats/poultry (197 mg; 6.5%). Using adjusted data, cheese was the top contributor of sodium to the diet (277 mg; 9.1%; +169 mg), followed by pizza (207 mg; 6.8%; −79 mg), and cured meats/poultry (197 mg; 6.5%).
Using SFG data, pizza was the top contributor of sodium to the diet (297 mg; 8.7%), followed by Mexican foods (224 mg; 6.6%), and cured meats/poultry (223 mg; 6.6%) in children 12–18 years. Using adjusted data, cheese was the top contributor of sodium to the diet (300 mg; 8.8%; +182 mg), followed by cured meats/poultry (221 mg; 6.5%; −0.6 mg), and pizza (216 mg; 6.4%; −80 mg).

4. Discussion

This study showed that top food sources contributing to intake of energy, fiber, calcium, vitamin D, potassium, SFA, added sugars, and sodium varied by age group. In addition, food groups providing some of the major sources of nutrients of public health concern also contributed nutrients to limit in the diet. Mixed dishes, especially pizza and Mexican dishes, contributed to the intake of short fall nutrients in the diets of children.
Nutrients of public health concern [2] have been identified as the shortfall nutrients that pose a substantial risk to the health of our nation. In adults, fiber intake has been associated with a protective effect against gastrointestinal diseases, obesity, CVD, and type 2 diabetes [35]. Fewer studies have been conducted in children; thus, the full impact of dietary fiber intake by children is not clear [36]. Calcium has long been associated with bone and tooth health, but it has also been associated with reduction in the risk of CVD and hypertension; cancers of the colon, rectum, and prostate; kidney stones; and weight management [37]. Potassium is perhaps best recognized for its effect on lowering/controlling blood pressure [38], but other health effects of low potassium intake include a higher risk of stroke [39], insulin resistance, and diabetes [40]. For vitamin D consumption, this study assessed vitamin D3, a prohormone produced in skin through ultraviolet irradiation of 7-dehydrocholesterol, and vitamin D2, found principally in plants [41]. Vitamin D increases intestinal calcium and phosphate absorption, bone calcium mobilization, and the renal reabsorption of calcium, thereby supporting bone mineralization and preventing nutritional rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults [41]. Vitamin D also has other physiologic function, including modulating cell growth, neuromuscular and immune functions, and reducing inflammation [37].
For the nutrients of public health concern [2], dairy products, particularly, milk, provided the top source of calcium, vitamin D, and potassium for all age groups. Although dairy foods provided the top sources of most of these nutrients for most age groups in the SFG data, when the data were adjusted, mixed dishes that included dairy products contributed substantially to intake of these nutrients. This suggested that these foods were no longer important sources of calcium, vitamin D, and potassium. For example, in children 6–11 years, the SFG data showed that mixed dishes—pizza was the 3rd top source of calcium; however, after adjustment, mixed dishes—pizza fell to the 20th source as the nutrients from cheese on pizza were reassigned to the cheese food group. In children 12–18 years, mixed dishes—pizza went from the 3rd top source of calcium to the 23rd top source after adjustment. Thus, it is important to recognize that, food groups that contribute nutrients to limit to the diet can also contribute significantly to the intake of nutrients of public health concern.
Although other foods including most dairy foods provide calcium, milk is well established as the principal source of calcium intake by children [3]. The present study, which used disaggregated data, however, clearly showed that dairy foods in mixed dishes and other dishes contributed many of the nutrients of public health concern found in milk. When examining food sources of nutrients in children these other foods should be considered. Milk and other dairy foods are commonly considered to be an important source of dietary potassium and the recommendation changed to 3 CE/day for most age groups in 2005, in part to increase potassium intake [42].
These data clearly demonstrated the importance of fortification of foods with vitamin D. Using adjusted data, fortified foods contributed 75, 72, and 68% of vitamin D intake by the three age groups; with milk/flavored milk contributing the highest amount of dietary vitamin D. These data contrast sharply with a recent study of children in Ireland [43], where milk/yogurt contributed only 13% of dietary vitamin D since most milk in that country is not fortified [43,44]. Since vitamin D increases calcium absorption, the combination of vitamin D and calcium is especially important for bone health. Fortification of milk has been recently reviewed [45]. The 2015–2020 DGAC [2] reconfirmed that vitamin D is a nutrient of public health concern. Data from WWEIA 2013–2014, showed that the intake of vitamin D by children 2–19 years was only 244 IU [13], which is less than half of the 600 IU dietary reference intake recommendation for this age group [37]. Fortification of foods, especially milk and RTEC, is an important way to increase dietary intake of vitamin D. These foods, as well as other foods high in vitamin D, including egg yolks and salmon, should be encouraged. The importance of milk and other dairy foods to potassium intake was clear, as it provided the top source of the nutrient in all three age groups. Potassium intake is very low, with average intakes slightly over half the requirements of most children [13,24]. Thus, high potassium foods including milk and other dairy foods should continue to be encouraged, along with other high potassium foods, notably fruit and vegetables.
Despite the contribution of dairy foods to the intake of shortfall nutrients, including in mixed dishes, there is concern that they contribute high amounts of SFA and sodium to the diet. Using adjusted data, for children 2–5 years, milk, flavored milk, and cheese contributed 39% of SFA (yogurt and dairy drinks/substitutes contributed minimally to SFA in the diet); for children 6–11 milk, flavored milk, and cheese contributed 31% of SFA to the diet; and for children 12–18 years 32% of SFA came from these dairy foods. The DGAC [2] recommends that no more than 10% of energy come from SFA. In this study, the amount of energy from SFA consumed by children varied by age; for children 2–5, 6–11, and 12–18 years the percent energy from SFA was 11.8, 12.0, and 11.4, respectively.
The rationale for the current recommendation is that by reducing SFA, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels are reduced and, in turn, the risk for CVD is lowered. Cardiovascular disease, which is the principal cause of death in the world, has its roots in childhood [46]. Recently, however, the relationship between SFA and CVD have been questioned [47,48,49,50], in part due to the nutrients that would replace SFA in the diet [51] and in part because not all food sources of SFA are associated with an unfavorable risk of CVD [52]. A number of studies, including several meta-analyses have shown that consumption of dairy products is associated with a neutral or inverse risk of CVD [53,54,55].
One of the easiest ways to reduce the amount of SFA in the diets of children two years and older is to encourage the consumption of low fat milk or flavored milk. When the category description of the milk sub-group was examined, low fat milk contributed only 0.25 g of SFA to the overall intake (data not shown). However, other sources of SFA in the diet also need to be addressed, notably sweet bakery products, such as cookies, brownies, and doughnuts. These foods are also among the principal sources of added sugars to the diet. Reducing the SFA and added sugars content of these foods is more difficult than for milk, since some of the structural integrity and sensory properties of these products are linked to solid fat [56,57]. Thus, consumer education may be the best way to reduce the intake of SFA in the diet.
Cheese was the principal contributor of sodium to the diet in the two older groups of children. Analysis of the contributions of disaggregated food mixtures showed this more clearly than examining the foods “as consumed”. In addition to cheese consumed directly, cheese was an important ingredient in mixed dishes widely consumed by children, including pizza and Mexican dishes. Thus, reducing the sodium in the diet by reducing the amount of cheese consumed may prove difficult. Reformulating cheeses as reduced-sodium products may also be challenging. Not only does salt help prevent microbial growth in cheese [58], low sodium cheeses may not be well received by consumers [59]. A gradual reduction in the amount of salt used in cheese manufacture may help introduce consumers to a lower sodium product [59] or replacement of part of the sodium chloride with potassium chloride [60]. Reduction of cheese in the diet may be an option; however, this would limit the intake of other shortfall nutrients found in cheese.
This study had a number of strengths. The first is was that it used a large, nationally representative sample. The study also demonstrated the differences in food sources of nutrients in three age groups of children. The third is was that disaggregated energy and nutrients from milk, cheese, yogurt, and non-dairy food groups were also considered which gives further insight into the relative contribution of milk, cheese, and yogurt to both nutrients to encourage and to limit. In addition, this approach can help individuals make more informed food choices [61].
The study also had a number of limitations. A limitation is was the use of 24-h dietary recalls to assess intake in NHANES. Participants or proxies relied on memory to self-report dietary intakes; therefore, data were subject to non-sampling errors, including under or over-reporting of energy and foods. The proxies reporting for or assisting children 2–11 years may not know what their children consumed outside of the home [62], which could also result in reporting errors [63]. Concerns about the validity of self-reported dietary intakes in NHANES has led to an ongoing debate about the validity of these data. Some believe strongly that the data are virtually useless [64,65,66] given issues with misreporting, whereas others, including the prestigious National Cancer Center, [2,67,68] use the data recognizing any potential limitations and allow conclusions to be drawn accordingly. According to Ahluwalia [68], the Nutrition Monitoring Advisor for the Division of Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, NCHS, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and coworkers “NHANES collects dietary data in the context of its broad, multipurpose goals”. Their recent review discusses further strengths and limitations of these data. Finally, it should be remembered that cross-sectional studies are used to generate hypotheses, not to test them.
The question may arise as to why “added sugars”, as defined by the Dietary Guidelines for Americans [42] were used in this study rather than the “free sugars” designation used by the World Health Organization [69]. These two terms differ significantly since “free sugars” include those sugars naturally occurring in “…fruit juice”. The authors do not believe that 100% fruit juice, which by definition, as no sugar added should not be considered in the category of free sugars. When evidence-based studies were examined, 100% fruit juice has consistently been shown not to contribute to overweight or obesity in children [70,71,72] or adults [73], instead contributing to nutrient intake and nutrient adequacy, and higher diet quality [71,73,74,75]. Furthermore, since we worked with an American population, it was felt that using the definitions provided by the nutrition policy statement of the US government was more appropriate.
Due to the technical difficulties involved, dairy was disaggregated from mixed dishes only; further insights might be obtained if it had been possible to disaggregate other food groups. Lastly, for this study, the assumption was made that the milk, cheese, and yogurt components of a mixed food follow the nutrient profiles of milk, NFS; cheese, NFS; and yogurt, NFS, but this approach may not provide the best approximation for some foods. For example, some types of cheese in a mix dishes may deviate from having a nutrient content similar to ‘cheese, NFS’ for one or more nutrients.

5. Conclusions

This study showed that for children in all three age groups studied, mixed dishes containing dairy foods contributed to calcium, vitamin D, and potassium intake—three of the nutrients of public concern. A caveat of dairy food consumption is that full fat dairy can contribute saturated fatty acids to the diet and cheese, a major component of many of the mixed dishes, such as pizza and Mexican foods, contributes not only saturated fatty acids, but sodium to the diet. The study also showed that fortifying foods with vitamin D was important since few foods contain naturally occurring vitamin D. The study also showed that children, especially those 6–11 and 12–18 years consumed a large proportion of total energy from energy-dense low-nutrient food groups, such as sugar sweetened beverages and sweet bakery products. Those foods contributed little to the nutrients of public health concern, but did contribute to the nutrients to limit, notably added saturated fatty acids and added sugars. Awareness of food and beverage sources of nutrients can help health professionals design and promote effective age-appropriate strategies to increase the nutrient density of the diet. In addition, this awareness can help the food industry to design and market foods frequently consumed by children that are acceptable and lower in energy and nutrients to limit.

Author Contributions

V.L.F. was responsible for the principal analysis of the data. T.A.N. and C.E.O. also reviewed the data. C.E.O. was responsible for drafting the initial manuscript. V.L.F. and T.A.N. reviewed the manuscript and their revisions were incorporated for the final draft.

Funding

This work is a publication of the USDA/ARS Children’s Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas. The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the USDA, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement from the U.S. government. Partial support was received from the United States Department of Agriculture/ Agricultural Research Service (USDA/ARS) through specific cooperative agreement 58-3092-5-001. Partial support was also received from the National Dairy Council. The sponsors had no input into the design, analyses, or interpretation of the results; and did not read the final manuscript prior to submission.

Conflicts of Interest

Aside from the information above on funding support, the authors declare no other conflicts of interest.

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Table 1. Food/food group sources of mean energy (kcals) intake 1 among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Table 1. Food/food group sources of mean energy (kcals) intake 1 among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Mean Energy Intake (kcals) of Children 2–5 Years of Age (n = 1511)
WWEIA Food GroupSpecific Food Group IntakeAdjusted Intake 2Delta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Milk112011365.58.90.3141511515.39.80.31120150.71.00.1
Sweet Bakery Products72321165.37.60.372321155.57.50.3262−10.100
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based4663866.55.60.44664796.25.10.4266−70.7−0.50
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas8184836.25.40.48183836.25.40.43000.100
100% Juice7555664.14.30.37556664.14.30.3000.000
Savory Snacks6886656.64.20.46887656.54.20.414000.000
Fruits9457632.34.10.29458632.34.10.2200.000
Sweetened Beverages7878614.54.00.37879614.54.00.32300.200
Poultry5269595.13.80.352610595.13.80.37100.000
Mixed Dishes—Mexican20110546.23.50.420113434.92.80.3189−11.31.4−0.70.1
Mixed Dishes—Pizza24711535.93.50.424717394.22.50.3247−141.8−0.90.1
Ready-to-Eat Cereals69512512.63.30.269511512.63.30.21200.000
Flavored Milk25313486.53.10.425312486.53.10.4000.000
Quick Breads/Bread Products29314415.32.70.429315405.02.60.4274−20.3−0.10
Cured Meats/Poultry45915404.02.60.345914404.02.60.3200.100
Crackers35316403.92.60.335316393.92.60.38600.100
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches20817394.02.60.320818373.92.40.267−20.400
Cheese54218395.32.50.310475745.74.80.4820361.82.30.1
Candy50719372.72.40.250719352.62.30.2181−10.2−0.10
Other Desserts41620373.62.40.241621323.22.10.2291−50.6−0.30
White Potatoes40121353.72.30.240120343.72.20.27800.200
Plant-Based Protein Foods34622302.52.00.234622302.52.00.2100.000
Yogurt23123273.11.80.227823283.11.90.26010.40.10
Eggs33224272.61.70.233225242.41.60.2234−30.5−0.20
Cooked Grains29925262.81.70.229924262.81.70.2000.000
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F18926222.91.40.218926212.81.40.269−10.200
Vegetables, excluding Potatoes56027191.91.20.156027181.91.20.12200.200
Fats and Oils46028171.31.10.146028171.31.10.13100.000
Mixed Dishes—Soups22729162.51.00.222729162.41.00.2700.100
Sugars44030152.21.00.144030162.21.00.12100.000
Meats22031162.11.00.122031162.11.00.1500.000
Mean Energy Intake (kcals) in Children 6–11 Years of Age (n = 2193)
WWEIA Food GroupSpecific Food Group IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Sweet Bakery Products103411649.18.40.4103411638.98.30.4455−20.2−0.10.01
Mixed Dishes—Pizza548213214.66.80.7548610011.15.10.6547−323.6−1.70.2
Sweetened Beverages146731124.15.70.2146731104.15.70.245−10.7−0.10.04
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas120541093.65.60.2120541093.55.60.28500.1−0.020.00
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based60651057.85.40.46067956.64.90.3324−101.5−0.50.1
Mixed Dishes—Mexican36269911.05.10.53629808.84.10.4347−192.4−1.00.1
Milk12747963.34.90.2198721173.46.00.21646211.01.00.1
Savory Snacks10488894.84.60.210488894.84.50.223200.04−0.010.00
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches4369797.04.10.343611746.63.80.3170−50.8−0.30.04
Poultry71110775.54.00.371110775.53.90.312400.030.000.00
Other Desserts62011657.23.40.462015566.62.90.3478−101.0−0.50.1
Ready-to-Eat Cereals86112613.73.10.286112613.73.10.22400.030.000.00
Quick Breads/Bread Products47513594.03.00.247514573.92.90.2445−30.2−0.10.01
Candy76414587.43.00.476413577.32.90.4306−10.2−0.10.01
Flavored Milk55515555.02.80.355516555.02.80.3000.000.000.00
Fruits115316542.42.80.1115317542.42.80.1600.010.000.00
White Potatoes61017463.32.30.261018443.22.30.2105−10.3−0.10.02
Mixed Dishes—M/F/P28118447.42.30.428119437.22.20.4123−10.4−0.10.02
100% Juice75919413.22.10.275920413.22.10.2000.000.000.00
Cured Meats/Poultry68720382.71.90.168721382.71.90.1100.000.000.00
Cheese72321383.01.90.2164351064.45.40.21349694.83.50.2
Plant-Based Protein Foods47522353.81.80.247522353.81.80.2100.000.000.00
Meats38823313.31.60.238823313.31.60.2500.010.000.00
Fats and Oils74024292.21.50.174024292.11.50.16200.030.000.00
Cooked Grains30225273.11.40.230225273.11.40.2100.10.000.00
Crackers32526252.51.30.132526252.51.30.19600.1−0.010.00
Eggs32427232.21.20.132428212.01.10.1217−20.4−0.10.02
Sugars60928211.81.10.160927211.81.10.14200.05−0.010.00
Mixed Dishes—Soups25329202.31.00.125329192.11.00.16−10.5−0.030.02
Mean Energy Intake (kcals) 12–18 Years of Age (n = 2172)
WWEIA Food GroupSpecific Food Group IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Sweetened Beverages140411626.07.90.3140411605.97.80.340−10.4−0.10.02
Sweet Bakery Products833213910.26.80.5833213710.16.70.5344−10.2−0.10.01
Mixed Dishes—Pizza486313514.26.60.7486610310.85.00.5486−333.6−1.60.2
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas111941185.25.70.2111931185.25.70.2850.00.1−0.020.0
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based46451058.05.10.44647967.64.70.4244−101.3−0.50.1
Mixed Dishes—Mexican329610311.35.00.632910849.04.10.4313−192.6−0.90.1
Milk9737964.84.70.2177941174.75.70.2145321.51.11.00.1
Savory Snacks9428936.14.50.39428926.14.00.32330.00.1−0.020.0
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches3749918.64.40.437411837.64.00.4174−81.4−0.40.1
Poultry65210878.14.20.46529878.14.20.41300.00.02−0.010.0
White Potatoes58011634.33.10.258012604.02.90.2121−40.7−0.20.03
Ready-to-Eat Cereals58212574.02.80.258213574.02.80.2180.00.010.00.0
Meats42413544.62.60.242414544.62.60.2140.00.010.00.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F28814494.92.40.228815464.82.20.2100−20.6−0.10.03
Other Desserts37715485.82.30.337722394.01.90.2339−92.1−0.50.1
Quick Breads/Bread Products29716444.12.10.229717424.02.00.2282−20.2−0.10.01
Candy60017435.02.10.260018424.92.00.2273−10.2−0.10.01
Cheese68718423.12.10.2156551185.25.70.31276744.93.60.2
Fruits83419423.12.10.283416423.12.10.230.00.010.00.0
Cured Meats/Poultry58520424.12.00.258519414.12.00.220.00.2−0.010.01
Mixed Dishes—Asian17421418.42.00.417420418.42.00.4110.00.00.00.0
Plant-Based Protein Foods34422416.12.00.334421416.12.00.310.000.00.00.0
Fats and Oils70023383.61.90.270023383.51.90.2860.00.04−0.010.0
100% Juice48724364.41.80.248724364.41.80.200.00.00.00.0
Coffee and Tea50525365.81.80.350525345.91.60.360−30.4−0.10.02
Cooked Grains32526313.01.50.232526313.01.50.200.00.00.00.0
Eggs33327282.31.30.133328252.11.20.1211−20.3−0.10.01
Flavored Milk22528253.01.20.122527253.01.20.100.00.00.00.0
Crackers22929253.71.20.222929254.01.20.2690.00.1−0.010.0
Mixed Dishes—Soups23730212.01.00.123731211.91.00.110−10.2−0.030.01
Sugars44631213.31.00.244630213.31.00.2160.00.010.00.0
1 To a 1% contribution of daily intake of energy; 2 Nutrients from milk, cheese, and yogurt for non-dairy foods are added to the nutrients in the milk, cheese, and yogurt food categories, respectively. For non-dairy foods the nutrients displayed are only for the milk, cheese, and yogurt in the non-dairy food. Abbreviations: Cons = consumers, M/P/F = meat/poultry/fish; SE = standard error; Pct = percent contribution to energy intake or specific nutrient intake, as appropriate.
Table 2. Food/food group sources 1 of mean dietary fiber (g) intake among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Table 2. Food/food group sources 1 of mean dietary fiber (g) intake among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Mean Dietary Fiber Intake (g) of Children 2–5 Years of Age (n = 1511)
Specific Food Group IntakeAdjusted Intake 2Delta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Fruit94512.00.117.20.494512.00.117.20.420.00.00.00.0
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas81821.20.110.00.781821.20.110.00.7300.00.00.00.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals69530.90.17.40.569530.90.17.40.5120.00.00.00.0
Vegetables, excluding Potatoes56040.90.17.30.556040.90.17.30.5220.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Grain based46650.80.17.00.746650.80.17.00.72660.00.00.00.0
Plant-Based Protein Foods34660.60.15.20.534660.60.15.20.510.00.00.00.0
Savory Snacks68870.60.04.90.468870.60.04.90.41400.00.00.00.0
Sweet Bakery Products72380.50.04.40.272380.50.04.40.22620.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Mexican 20190.40.14.00.520190.50.14.00.51890.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Pizza 247100.50.13.90.4247100.50.13.90.42470.00.00.00.0
White Potatoes401110.50.13.80.4401110.50.13.80.4780.00.00.00.0
100% Juice755120.30.02.60.2755120.30.02.60.200.00.00.00.0
Quick Breads and Bread Products293130.30.12.50.6293130.30.12.50.62740.00.00.00.0
Flavored Milk253140.30.02.20.4253140.30.02.20.400.00.00.00.0
Crackers353150.20.01.90.2353150.20.01.90.2860.00.00.00.0
Poultry526160.20.01.50.3526160.20.01.50.3710.00.00.00.0
Cooked Cereal125170.20.01.50.2125170.20.01.50.2690.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches 208180.20.01.50.2208180.20.01.50.2670.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Soups 227190.20.01.50.3227190.20.01.450.2670.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F189200.20.01.40.2189200.20.01.370.22690.00.00.00.0
Cooked Grains299210.20.01.40.2299210.20.01.350.2300.00.00.00.0
Snack/Meal Bars81220.20.01.30.281220.20.01.250.19300.00.00.00.0
Mean Dietary Fiber Intake (g) of Children 6–11 Years of Age (n = 2193)
Specific Food Group IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Fruit115311.90.112.80.4115311.90.112.80.560.00.00.00.0
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas120521.50.110.00.4120521.50.110.00.4850.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Pizza54831.10.17.40.654831.10.17.40.65470.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Mexican36241.00.16.80.736241.00.16.80.73470.00.00.00.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals86151.00.16.70.486151.00.16.70.4240.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Grain based60661.00.16.50.460661.00.16.50.43240.00.00.00.0
Savory Snacks104870.90.06.10.3104871.00.06.10.32320.00.00.00.0
Vegetables, excluding Potatoes79280.80.15.40.579280.80.15.40.5400.00.00.00.0
Plant-Based Protein Foods47590.70.15.00.547590.70.15.00.510.00.00.00.0
Sweet Bakery Products1034100.70.04.90.31034100.70.04.90.34550.00.00.00.0
White Potatoes610110.60.03.90.3610110.60.03.90.31050.00.00.00.0
Quick Breads and Bread Products475120.40.02.50.2475120.40.02.50.24450.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches436130.30.02.30.2436130.30.02.30.21700.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F281140.30.12.20.5281140.30.12.20.51230.00.00.00.0
Flavored Milk555150.30.02.10.3555150.30.02.10.300.00.00.00.0
Poultry711160.20.01.60.2711160.20.01.60.21240.00.00.00.0
Other Desserts620170.20.01.60.2620170.20.01.60.24780.00.00.00.0
Snack/Meal Bars124180.20.11.50.3124180.20.11.50.3440.00.00.00.0
100% Juice759190.20.01.40.1759190.20.01.40.100.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Soups253200.20.01.40.2253200.20.01.40.260.00.00.00.0
Crackers325210.20.01.10.2325210.20.01.10.2960.00.00.00.0
Cooked Grains302220.20.01.00.1302220.20.01.00.110.00.00.00.0
Mean Dietary Fiber Intake (g) Children 12–18 Years of Age (n = 2172)
Specific Food Group IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Fruit83411.50.110.00.883411.50.110.00.830.00.00.00.0
Bread, Rolls, Tortillas111921.50.110.00.6111921.50.110.00.6850.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Mexican32931.10.27.71.032931.10.27.71.03130.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Pizza48641.10.17.40.848641.10.17.40.84860.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Grain based46450.90.16.40.446450.90.16.40.42440.00.00.00.0
Vegetables, excluding Potatoes80360.90.16.40.580360.90.16.40.5280.00.00.00.0
Savory Snacks94270.90.16.30.594270.90.16.30.52330.00.00.00.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals58280.90.16.20.658280.90.16.20.6180.00.00.00.0
Plant-Based Protein Foods34490.80.15.70.834490.80.15.70.810.00.00.00.0
White Potatoes580100.80.15.50.4580100.80.15.50.41210.00.00.00.0
Sweet Bakery Products833110.60.14.30.3833110.60.14.30.33440.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches374120.40.02.80.3374120.40.02.80.31740.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F288130.30.02.20.2288130.30.02.20.21000.00.00.00.0
Condiments and Sauces889140.280.031.870.20889140.280.031.90.2410.00.00.00.0
Quick Breads and Bread Products297150.30.01.90.2297150.30.021.90.22820.00.00.00.0
Poultry652160.20.01.60.2652160.20.031.60.21300.00.00.00.0
Snack/Meal Bars135170.20.01.60.3135170.20.041.60.3470.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Soups 237180.20.01.50.2237180.20.031.50.2100.00.00.00.0
Cooked Grains325190.20.01.30.1325190.20.021.30.100.00.00.00.0
100% Juice487200.20.01.30.1487200.20.021.30.100.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Asian 174210.20.01.20.2174210.20.031.20.2110.00.00.00.0
Crackers229220.20.01.00.2229220.20.021.00.2690.00.00.00.0
1 To a 1% contribution of daily intake of dietary fiber; 2 Nutrients from milk, cheese, and yogurt for non-dairy foods are added to the nutrients in the milk, cheese, and yogurt food categories, respectively. For non-dairy foods the nutrients displayed are only for the milk, cheese, and yogurt in the non-dairy food. Abbreviations: Cons = consumers, M/P/F = meat/poultry/fish; SE = standard error; Pct = percent contribution to energy intake or specific nutrient intake, as appropriate.
Table 3. Food/food group sources 1 of mean calcium (mg) intake among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Table 3. Food/food group sources 1 of mean calcium (mg) intake among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Mean Calcium Intake (mg) of Children 2–5 Years of Age (n = 1511)
Specific Food Group IntakeAdjusted Intake 2Delta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Milk11201317.612.032.70.814151351.611.836.20.8112034.01.73.50.2
Cheese542298.911.610.21.010472189.513.219.51.182090.64.59.30.4
Flavored Milk253374.08.97.60.9253374.08.97.60.900.00.00.00.0
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas818443.23.24.50.3818542.83.14.40.330−0.40.3−0.00.0
Yogurt231541.74.74.30.5278443.24.74.50.5601.50.60.20.1
100% Juice755640.43.64.20.4755640.43.64.20.400.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Mexican201739.74.84.10.5201169.21.10.90.1189−30.63.9−3.10.4
Mixed Dishes—Pizza247835.94.13.70.4247332.30.40.20.0247−33.64.0−3.50.4
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based466927.82.22.90.24661410.31.31.10.1266−17.51.7−1.80.2
Ready-to-Eat Cereals6951025.51.92.60.2695725.41.92.60.212−0.00.00.00.0
Plain Water12291120.81.32.10.11229820.81.32.10.100.00.00.00.0
Other Desserts4161218.12.31.90.2416188.01.10.80.1291−10.11.3−1.00.1
Quick Breads and Bread Products2931318.02.41.90.32931013.71.91.40.2274−4.30.8−0.40.1
Dairy Drinks and Substitutes701416.53.41.70.470916.53.41.70.400.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches2081515.21.81.60.22081210.51.31.20.167−4.70.9−0.50.1
Eggs3321613.01.51.30.2332206.30.60.70.1234−6.71.2−0.70.1
Sweet Bakery Products7231712.71.21.30.17231310.40.91.10.1262−2.30.3−0.20.0
Fruit9451810.80.51.10.19451110.80.51.10.120.00.00.00.0
Vegetables, excluding Potatoes5601910.61.01.10.1560159.81.11.00.122−0.80.5−0.10.1
Cooked Cereals1252010.41.51.10.2125226.10.90.60.169−4.31.0−0.40.1
Mean Calcium Intake (mg) of Children 6–11 Years of Age (n = 2193)
Specific Food Group IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Milk12741238.28.722.20.719871287.38.926.70.8164649.12.24.60.2
Cheese7232107.19.510.00.916432281.712.326.20.91349174.612.316.31.0
Mixed Dishes—Pizza548388.99.88.30.9548209.51.80.90.2547−79.39.3−7.40.8
Flavored Milk555488.37.78.20.7555388.37.78.20.700.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Mexican362567.98.16.30.83621116.22.01.50.2347−51.76.5−4.80.6
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas1205659.63.05.60.31205458.62.95.50.385−1.10.2−0.10.0
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based606739.04.53.60.46061413.61.41.30.1324−25.43.7−2.40.3
Other Desserts620835.13.13.30.36201314.71.31.40.1478−20.42.0−1.90.2
100% Juice759934.85.13.20.5759534.85.13.20.500.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches4361031.23.62.90.34361019.32.81.80.3170−12.21.7−1.10.2
Quick Breads and Bread Products4751129.62.72.80.3475923.52.52.20.2445−6.10.5−0.60.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals8611228.22.42.60.2861628.12.42.60.224−0.10.1−0.00.0
Plain Water17321327.91.42.60.11732727.91.42.60.100.00.00.00.0
Yogurt2061422.72.62.10.2281826.92.82.50.3934.31.10.40.1
Sweet Bakery Products10341518.92.01.80.210341215.31.51.40.2455−3.60.5−0.30.1
Sweetened Beverages14671615.32.11.40.214671612.71.21.20.145−2.61.2−0.20.1
Dairy Drinks and Substitutes811713.42.51.20.2811513.42.51.20.200.00.00.00.0
Fruits11531811.50.61.10.111531711.50.51.10.16−0.00.00.00.0
Vegetables, excluding Potatoes7921910.91.01.00.1792189.91.00.90.140−1.00.3−0.10.0
Mean Calcium Intake (mg) of Children 12–18 Years of Age (n = 2172)
Specific Food Group IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Milk9731239.812.522.71.017792289.912.627.40.9145350.12.64.00.2
Cheese6872113.65.410.80.615651300.712.128.50.91276187.212.117.70.9
Mixed Dishes—Pizza486385.68.98.10.8486236.91.00.70.1486−78.78.2−7.50.7
Mixed Dishes—Mexican329468.18.76.40.83291016.92.01.60.2313−51.27.1−4.80.6
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas1119557.33.25.40.31119356.13.35.30.385−1.20.2−0.10.0
Plain Water1673653.13.15.00.31673453.13.15.00.300.00.00.0.0
Flavored Milk225740.55.13.80.5225540.55.13.80.500.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches374840.14.93.80.5374821.52.42.00.2174−18.73.4−1.80.3
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based464937.13.93.50.44641512.11.31.20.1244−25.03.4−2.40.3
Other Desserts3771030.94.42.90.43771612.01.31.10.1339−18.93.3−1.80.3
100% Juice4871128.14.02.70.4487628.14.02.70.400.00.00.00.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals5821227.34.42.60.4582727.24.42.60.418−0.10.0−0.00.0
Quick Breads and Bread Products2971321.32.62.00.2297917.02.31.60.2282−4.20.4−0.40.0
Sweet Bakery Products8331416.61.41.60.18331313.31.11.30.1344−3.30.4−0.30.0
Sweetened Beverages14041515.31.41.50.114041412.91.11.20.140−2.30.6−0.20.1
White Potatoes5801614.62.11.40.2580284.90.40.50.0121−9.71.8−0.90.2
Dairy Drinks and Substitutes791714.51.81.40.2791114.51.81.40.200.00.00.00.0
Savory Snacks9421812.50.91.20.19421711.20.81.10.1233−1.30.2−0.10.0
Eggs3331912.21.11.20.1333246.60.50.60.1211−5.60.7−0.50.1
Vegetables, excluding Potatoes8032012.21.21.20.18031811.21.21.10.128−1.00.3−0.10.0
Mixed Dishes—Meat, Poultry, Fish2882112.11.51.20.1288256.50.70.60.1100−5.71.1−0.50.1
1 To a 1% contribution of daily intake of calcium; 2 Nutrients from milk, cheese, and yogurt for non-dairy foods are added to the nutrients in the milk, cheese, and yogurt food categories, respectively. For non-dairy foods the nutrients displayed are only for the milk, cheese, and yogurt in the non-dairy food. Abbreviations: Cons = consumers, M/P/F = meat/poultry/fish; SE = standard error; Pct = percent contribution to energy intake or specific nutrient intake, as appropriate.
Table 4. Food/food group sources 1 of mean vitamin D intake (mcg) among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Table 4. Food/food group sources 1 of mean vitamin D intake (mcg) among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Mean Vitamin D Intake (mcg) of Children 2–5 Years of Age (n = 1511)
WWEIA Food GroupSpecific Food Group IntakeAdjusted Intake 2Delta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Milk112013.30.152.61.5141513.50.155.71.511200.20.03.00.2
Flavored Milk25320.80.112.01.425320.80.112.01.400.00.00.00.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals69530.50.07.50.569530.50.07.50.5120.00.00.00.0
Eggs33240.30.04.40.533250.20.03.80.42340.00.0−0.70.1
Cheese54250.30.04.20.4104740.30.05.40.58200.10.01.20.1
Seafood9660.20.13.21.39660.20.13.21.3260.00.00.00.0
Yogurt23170.20.02.40.327870.20.02.40.3600.00.00.00.0
100% Juice75580.10.01.80.375580.10.01.80.300.00.00.00.0
Cured Meats/Poultry45990.10.01.70.245990.10.01.70.220.00.00.00.0
Dairy Drinks and Substitutes70100.10.01.70.470100.10.01.70.400.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based466110.10.01.30.1466150.00.00.40.1266−0.10.0−1.00.1
Mean Vitamin D Intake (mcg) of Children 6–11 Years of Age (n = 2193)
WWEIA Food GroupSpecific Food Group IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Milk127412.40.142.31.1198712.70.146.71.116460.30.04.50.4
Flavored Milk55520.90.115.21.255520.90.115.21.200.00.00.00.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals86130.60.09.90.686130.60.09.90.6240.00.00.00.0
Cheese72340.40.06.00.7164340.50.08.40.713490.10.02.40.2
Eggs32450.20.04.10.432450.20.03.50.42170.00.0−0.60.1
Seafood15160.20.02.60.515160.20.02.60.5470.00.00.00.0
100% Juice75970.10.02.10.475970.10.02.10.400.00.00.00.0
Cured Meats/Poultry68780.10.01.90.268780.10.01.90.210.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches43690.10.01.80.2436100.10.01.40.21700.00.00.40.1
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based606100.10.01.70.2606160.00.00.40.1324−0.10.01.30.2
Yogurt206110.10.01.50.228190.10.01.60.2930.00.00.10.1
Dairy Drinks and Substitutes81120.10.01.30.381110.10.01.30.300.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F281130.10.01.20.4281130.10.00.80.31230.00.0−0.40.1
Quick Breads and Bread Products475140.10.01.00.2475150.00.00.50.14450.00.0−0.60.1
Mean Vitamin D Intake (mcg) of Children 12–18 Years of Age (n = 2172)
WWEIA Food GroupActual IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Milk97312.40.145.61.6177912.70.151.31.514530.30.05.70.4
Ready-to-Eat Cereals58220.50.09.20.758230.50.09.10.7180.00.00.00.0
Flavored Milk22530.40.17.61.022540.40.17.61.000.00.00.00.0
Cheese68740.30.06.40.4156520.50.09.60.512760.20.03.10.2
Eggs33350.30.05.20.433350.20.04.60.32110.00.0−0.70.2
Seafood14260.20.13.71.114260.20.13.71.1210.000.00.00.0
Cured Meats/Poultry58570.10.02.30.358570.10.02.30.320.000.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based46480.10.02.00.3464160.00.00.60.1244−0.10.0−1.50.2
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches37490.10.02.00.337490.10.01.40.21740.00.0−0.60.1
100% Juice487100.10.01.80.348780.10.01.80.300.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F288110.10.01.70.4288100.10.01.20.41000.00.0−0.50.1
White Potatoes580120.10.01.20.2580170.00.00.50.11210.00.0−0.70.1
Coffee and Tea505130.10.01.10.2505300.00.00.00.060−0.10.0−1.00.2
Poultry652140.10.01.00.1652110.10.01.00.11300.00.0−0.10.0
1 To a 1% contribution of daily intake of vitamin D; 2 Nutrients from milk, cheese, and yogurt for non-dairy foods are added to the nutrients in the milk, cheese, and yogurt food categories, respectively. For non-dairy foods the nutrients displayed are only for the milk, cheese, and yogurt in the non-dairy food. Abbreviations: Cons = consumers, M/P/F = meat/poultry/fish; SE = standard error; Pct = percent contribution to energy intake or specific nutrient intake, as appropriate.
Table 5. Food/food group sources 1 of mean potassium (mg) intake among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014
Table 5. Food/food group sources 1 of mean potassium (mg) intake among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014
Mean Potassium Intake (mg) of Children 2–5 Years of Age (n = 1511)
WWEIA Food GroupSpecific Food Group IntakeAdjusted Intake 2Delta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Milk11201375.414.418.90.614151417.113.921.10.6112041.82.12.10.1
Fruits9452189.77.69.60.49452189.77.69.60.420.000.00.00.0
100% Juice7553169.310.08.50.47553169.310.08.50.400.000.00.00.0
Flavored Milk2534100.613.15.10.62534100.613.15.10.600.000.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based466580.18.04.00.4466772.97.93.70.4266−7.20.8−0.40.0
Vegetables, excluding Potatoes560678.57.24.00.4560578.07.33.90.422−0.50.20.00.0
White Potatoes401778.37.64.00.4401676.77.53.90.478−1.60.5−0.10.0
Poultry526869.96.63.50.3526869.76.63.50.371−0.10.00.00.0
Savory Snacks688962.55.23.20.3688962.35.23.10.3140−0.20.10.00.0
Sweetened Beverages7871060.95.53.10.37871059.85.43.00.323−1.10.4−0.10.0
Cured Meats/Poultry4591159.45.33.00.34591159.35.33.00.32−0.10.10.00.0
Yogurt2311253.66.02.70.32781255.65.92.80.3602.00.70.10.0
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas8181348.93.62.50.28181348.83.62.50.230−0.10.10.00.0
Plant-Based Protein Foods3461446.84.62.40.23461446.84.62.40.210.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Mexican2011540.34.62.00.22011735.44.11.80.2189−4.90.6−0.30.0
Sweet Bakery Products7231639.61.62.00.17231537.01.51.90.1262−2.60.4−0.10.0
Mixed Dishes—Pizza2471738.14.31.90.22472031.83.61.60.2247−6.20.8−0.30.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals6951837.02.61.90.16951636.92.61.90.112−0.10.10.00.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F1891933.15.61.70.31891932.15.51.60.369−1.10.3−0.10.0
Other Desserts4162031.33.81.60.24162518.92.41.00.1291−12.41.6−0.60.1
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches2082129.63.41.50.22082228.63.31.40.267−1.00.2−0.10.0
Mixed Dishes—Soups2272229.45.91.50.32272129.25.81.50.37−0.20.10.00.0
Eggs3322324.32.41.20.13322420.02.01.00.1234−4.20.6−0.20.0
Meats2202423.52.71.20.12202323.52.71.20.150.00.00.00.0
Quick Bread and Bread Products2932520.53.21.00.22932815.42.40.80.1274−5.10.9−0.30.1
Mean Potassium Intake (mg) of Children 6–11 Years of Age (n = 2193)
WWEIA Food GroupSpecific Food Group IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Milk12741283.410.512.90.519871343.510.915.60.5164660.02.82.70.1
Fruits11532160.37.57.30.311532160.37.57.30.36−0.10.00.00.0
Flavored Milk5553124.911.25.70.55553124.911.25.70.500.00.00.00.0
100% Juice7594117.510.15.30.47594117.510.15.30.400.00.00.00.0
White Potatoes6105101.38.04.60.4610598.77.64.50.3105−2.60.7−0.10.0
Mixed Dishes—Pizza548696.19.54.40.4548882.18.13.70.4547−14.01.6−0.60.1
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based606790.06.84.10.3606980.76.43.70.3324−9.21.3−0.40.1
Mixed Dishes—Mexican362888.09.94.00.43621079.69.13.60.4347−8.41.0−0.40.0
Savory Snacks1048988.05.84.00.31048687.85.84.00.3232−0.20.00.00.0
Poultry7111085.65.43.90.2711785.45.43.90.2124−0.30.10.00.0
Sweetened Beverages14671177.64.83.50.214671274.44.03.40.245−3.21.5−0.20.1
Vegetables, excluding Potatoes7921275.46.73.40.37921174.86.63.40.340−0.60.20.00.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F2811367.113.53.10.62811364.513.22.90.6123−2.60.7−0.10.0
Cured Meats/Poultry6871463.03.92.90.26871462.93.92.90.210.00.00.00.0
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas12051562.63.52.90.212051562.03.42.80.285−0.60.20.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches4361662.36.92.80.34361659.76.82.70.3170−2.60.4−0.10.0
Other Desserts6201758.54.92.70.26202335.13.61.60.2478−23.41.7−1.10.1
Sweet Bakery Products10341856.83.02.60.110341752.52.82.40.1455−4.30.6−0.20.0
Plant-Based Protein Foods4751952.05.02.40.24751852.05.02.40.210.00.00.00.0
Meats3882047.14.72.10.23882047.04.72.10.250.00.00.00.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals8612138.32.31.70.18612138.22.31.70.1024−0.20.10.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Soups2532238.06.31.70.32532236.65.61.70.36−1.41.4−0.10.1
Condiments and Sauces8672331.53.51.40.28672530.93.41.40.232−0.60.20.00.0
Yogurt2062429.2>3.41.30.22812434.53.61.60.2935.31.40.20.1
Quick Breads and Bread Products4752527.91.51.20.14752620.71.20.90.1445−7.30.6−0.30.0
Mean Potassium Intake (mg) of Children 12–18 Years of Age (n = 2172)
WWEIA Food GroupSpecific Food Group IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Milk9731285.415.112.40.617791346.715.315.00.7145361.33.22.70.2
White Potatoes5802145.211.56.30.45802140.910.96.10.4121−4.30.8−0.20.0
Fruits8343128.89.75.60.48343128.89.75.60.430.00.00.00.0
100% Juice4874107.19.84.60.44874107.19.84.60.400.00.00.00.
Poultry6525103.810.14.50.46525103.510.04.50.4130−0.30.10.00.00
Mixed Dishes—Mexican329697.710.94.20.5329889.410.03.90.4313−8.31.10.40.1
Mixed Dishes—Pizza486796.510.04.20.44861182.38.53.60.4486−14.21.5−0.60.1
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based464896.17.94.20.3464986.47.53.70.3244−9.71.−0.40.1
Vegetables, excluding Potatoes803995.48.64.10.3803694.88.64.10.328−0.60.230.00.0
Savory Snacks9421092.57.14.00.3942792.27.14.00.3233−0.30.10.00.0
Meats4241185.87.73.70.34241085.77.73.70.314−0.10.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches3741274.67.53.20.33741370.86.93.10.3174−3.90.6−0.20.0
Cured Meats/Poultry5851372.15.73.10.25851272.05.73.10.22−0.10.10.00.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F 2881471.29.33.10.42881467.89.32.90.4100−3.40.7−0.20.0
Sweetened Beverages14041567.15.42.90.314041564.04.82.80.240−3.00.8−0.10.0
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas11191663.73.42.80.111191663.03.42.70.185−0.70.10.00.0
Plant-Based Protein Foods3441759.59.82.60.43441759.59.82.60.410.00.00.00.0
Flavored Milk2251858.37.12.50.32251858.37.12.50.300.00.00.00.0
Coffee and Tea5051952.23.42.30.25052344.93.61.90.260−7.31.2−0.30.1
Sweet Bakery Products8332050.74.42.20.28332046.94.12.00.2344−3.80.5−0.20.0
Other Desserts3772148.96.12.10.33772626.12.71.10.1339−22.73.8−1.00.2
Condiments and Sauces8892247.14.62.00.28892146.14.62.00.241−1.00.40.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Asian1742345.010.82.00.51742245.010.82.00.5110.00.00.00.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals5822439.13.71.70.25822439.03.71.70.218−0.10.040.000.0
Mixed Dishes—Soups2372530.64.21.30.22372529.74.01.30.210−0.90.350.00.0
Eggs3332624.92.01.10.13332721.21.70.90.1211−3.80.38−0.20.0
1 To a 1% contribution of daily intake of potassium; 2 Nutrients from milk, cheese, and yogurt for non-dairy foods are added to the nutrients in the milk, cheese, and yogurt food categories, respectively. For non-dairy foods the nutrients displayed are only for the milk, cheese, and yogurt in the non-dairy food. Abbreviations: Cons = consumers, M/P/F = meat/poultry/fish; SE = standard error; Pct = percent contribution to energy intake or specific nutrient intake, as appropriate.
Table 6. Food/food group sources 1 of mean added sugars (tsp eq) intake among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Table 6. Food/food group sources 1 of mean added sugars (tsp eq) intake among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Mean Added Sugars Intake (tsp eq) of Children 2–5 Years of Age (n = 1511)
Specific Food Group IntakeAdjusted Intake 2Delta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Sweetened Beverages78713.00.225.31.478713.00.225.21.4230.00.0−0.10.0
Sweet Bakery Products72321.90.116.00.772321.90.116.00.72620.00.00.00.0
Other Desserts41630.90.17.50.941630.90.17.40.92910.00.0−0.10.1
Ready-to-Eat Cereals69540.90.17.20.569540.90.17.20.5120.00.00.00.0
Candy50750.80.16.90.450750.80.16.90.41810.00.00.00.0
Flavored Milk25360.80.16.70.825360.80.16.70.800.00.00.00.0
Sugars44070.70.16.21.044070.70.16.21.0210.00.00.00.0
Yogurt23180.60.15.10.727880.60.15.30.7600.00.00.20.2
Quick Breads and Bread Products29390.40.13.00.729390.40.13.00.72740.00.00.00.0
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas818100.30.02.10.2818100.30.02.10.2300.00.00.00.0
Dairy Drinks and Substitutes70110.20.01.50.370110.20.01.50.300.00.00.00.0
Fruit945120.20.01.50.2945120.20.01.50.220.00.00.00.0
Coffee and Tea130130.20.01.50.2130130.20.01.50.260.00.00.00.0
Snack/Meal Bars81140.20.01.40.281140.20.01.40.2300.00.00.00.0
Condiments and Sauces487150.20.01.30.1487150.20.01.30.1180.00.00.00.0
Mean Added Sugars Intake (tsp eq) of Children 6–11 Years of Age (n = 2193)
Specific Food Group IntakeAdjusted Intake 2Delta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Sweetened Beverages146715.80.232.11.06146715.820.231.71.1450.00.0−0.10.1
Sweet Bakery Products103422.80.215.30.8103422.80.215.30.84550.00.00.00.0
Candy76431.50.28.20.976431.50.28.20.93060.00.00.00.0
Other Desserts62041.40.27.80.862041.40.27.60.84780.00.0−0.20.1
Ready-to-Eat Cereals86151.10.16.20.586151.10.16.20.5240.00.00.00.00
Sugars60960.90.15.10.460960.90.15.10.4420.00.00.00.0
Flavored Milk55570.90.14.90.455570.90.14.90.400.00.00.00.0
Coffee and Tea28580.70.13.80.628580.70.13.80.6160.00.00.00.0
Quick Breads and Bread Products47590.50.02.60.247590.50.02.60.24450.00.00.00.0
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas1205100.40.02.00.11205110.40.02.00.1850.00.00.00.0
Yogurt206110.30.01.70.2281100.40.02.10.2930.10.00.40.1
Condiments and Sauces867120.30.01.40.2867120.30.01.40.2320.00.00.00.0
Dairy Drinks and Substitutes81130.20.11.30.381130.20.01.30.300.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes Sandwiches436140.20.01.20.1436140.20.01.20.11700.00.00.00.0
Mean Added Sugars Intake (tsp eq) of Children 12–18 Years of Age (n = 2172)
Specific Food Group IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Sweetened Beverages140418.60.342.51.3140418.60.342.41.3400.00.0−0.10.0
Sweet Bakery Products83322.40.211.80.883322.40.211.80.83440.00.00.00.0
Coffee and Tea50531.70.38.31.450531.70.38.31.4600.00.00.00.0
Candy60041.10.25.60.760041.10.25.60.72730.00.00.00.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals58251.00.15.00.458251.00.15.00.4180.00.00.00.0
Sugars44661.00.15.00.744661.00.14.90.7160.00.00.00.0
Other Desserts37771.00.14.90.537770.90.14.60.4339−0.10.0−0.30.2
Flavored Milk22580.50.12.20.322580.50.12.20.300.00.00.00.0
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas111990.40.01.80.1111990.40.01.80.1850.00.00.00.0
Quick Breads and Bread Products297100.40.11.70.2297100.40.11.70.22820.00.00.00.0
Dairy Drinks and Substitutes79110.30.11.40.379110.30.11.40.300.00.00.00.0
Snack/Meal Bars135120.30.01.30.2135120.30.01.30.2470.00.00.00.0
Condiments and Sauces889130.20.01.20.1889130.20.01.20.1410.00.00.00.0
1 To a 1% contribution of daily intake of added sugars; 2 Nutrients from milk, cheese, and yogurt for non-dairy foods are added to the nutrients in the milk, cheese, and yogurt food categories, respectively. For non-dairy foods the nutrients displayed are only for the milk, cheese, and yogurt in the non-dairy food. Abbreviations: Cons = consumers, M/P/F = meat/poultry/fish; SE = standard error; Pct = percent contribution to energy intake or specific nutrient intake, as appropriate.
Table 7. Food/food group sources 1 of mean saturated fatty acids (g) intake among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Table 7. Food/food group sources 1 of mean saturated fatty acids (g) intake among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Mean Saturated Fatty Acids Intake (g) of Children 2 to 5 Years of Age (n = 1511)
WWEIA Food GroupSpecific Food Group IntakeAdjusted Intake 2Delta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Milk112013.40.216.70.6141513.70.218.40.611200.30.01.60.1
Sweet Bakery Products72321.80.18.80.572331.80.18.70.52620.00.0−0.10.0
Cheese54231.70.28.21.0104723.30.316.41.08201.60.18.10.4
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based46641.20.15.70.546650.90.14.30.4266−0.30.0−1.40.1
Mixed Dishes—Mexican20151.10.15.70.6201100.60.13.10.3189−0.50.1−2.60.3
Cured Meats/Poultry45961.00.14.80.545941.00.14.80.520.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Pizza24770.90.14.70.6247210.30.01.40.2247−0.70.1−3.30.4
Flavored Milk25380.80.13.90.525360.80.13.90.500.00.00.00.0
Other Desserts41690.80.13.90.541670.70.13.40.4291−0.10.0−0.50.1
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches208100.70.13.40.3208110.60.13.10.367−0.10.0−0.40.1
Eggs332110.70.13.30.4332120.60.12.80.3234−0.10.0−0.50.1
Fats and Oils460120.70.13.20.346080.70.13.20.3310.00.00.0.0
Poultry526130.70.13.20.352690.70.13.20.3710.00.00.00.0
Savory Snacks688140.50.02.60.2688130.50.02.60.21400.00.0−0.10.0
Candy507150.50.12.40.3507140.50.12.30.31810.00.0−0.10.0
Crackers353160.40.01.90.2353160.40.01.80.2860.00.0−0.10.0
Plant-Based Protein Foods346170.40.01.90.2346150.40.01.90.210.00.00.00.0
Quick Breads and Bread Products293180.40.11.80.3293180.30.01.60.22740.00.0−0.20.0
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas818190.40.11.70.2818170.30.11.70.2300.00.00.00.0
Meats220200.30.11.50.3220190.30.11.50.350.00.00.00.0
White Potatoes401210.30.01.40.2401220.30.01.30.2780.00.0−0.10.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F189220.30.01.40.2189230.30.01.30.1690.00.0−0.10.0
Yogurt231230.30.01.30.2278200.30.01.40.2600.00.00.10.0
Mean Intake of Saturated Fatty Acids Intake (g) of Children 6–11 Years of Age (n = 2193)
WWEIA Food GroupSpecific Food Group IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Sweet Bakery Products103412.60.210.00.7103432.60.29.90.74550.00.0−0.10.0
Mixed Dishes—Pizza54822.30.39.01.0548110.80.13.20.4547−1.50.2−5.70.6
Milk127432.20.18.30.4198722.60.110.10.416460.50.01.80.1
Mixed Dishes—Mexican36242.00.27.90.936261.20.14.50.5347−0.90.1−3.40.4
Cheese72351.60.16.10.5164314.70.218.30.713493.20.212.10.7
Other Desserts62061.50.15.90.562041.40.15.20.5478−0.20.0−0.70.1
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based60671.50.25.70.860671.10.24.10.6324−0.40.1−1.60.2
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches43681.40.15.50.543651.20.14.60.4170−0.20.0−0.90.1
Fats and Oils74091.00.14.00.474081.00.14.00.4620.00.00.00.0
Poultry711100.90.13.40.371190.90.13.40.31240.00.00.00.0
Cured Meats/Poultry687110.90.13.30.3687100.90.13.30.310.00.00.00.0
Savory Snacks1048120.80.13.30.21048120.80.13.20.22320.00.0−0.10.0
Candy764130.80.23.20.8764130.80.23.10.83060.00.0−0.10.0
Flavored Milk555140.80.12.90.3555140.80.12.90.300.00.00.00.0
Meats388150.60.12.40.3388150.60.12.40.350.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F281160.60.12.30.4281160.60.12.10.4123−0.10.0−0.20.1
Eggs324170.60.12.20.2324170.50.11.90.2217−0.10.0−0.30.1
Quick Breads and Bread Products475180.50.12.00.2475180.50.11.80.2445−0.10.0−0.20.0
White Potatoes610190.40.01.60.1610210.40.01.50.11050.00.0−0.10.0
Plant-Based Protein Foods475200.40.11.60.2475190.40.11.60.210.00.00.00.0
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas1205210.40.01.60.11205200.40.01.50.1850.00.0−0.10.0
Mean Saturated Fatty Acids (g) Intake of Children 12–18 Years of Age (n = 2172)
WWEIA Food GroupSpecific Food Group IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Mixed Dishes—Pizza48612.40.29.10.9486120.90.13.30.3486−1.50.2−5.80.6
Sweet Bakery Products83322.20.28.60.683332.20.28.50.63440.00.0−0.10.0
Milk97332.10.18.10.5177922.60.110.00.414530.50.01.90.1
Mixed Dishes—Mexican32942.10.27.90.932951.20.14.50.5313−0.90.1−3.40.5
Cheese68751.70.16.70.4156515.10.219.70.712763.40.213.10.7
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches37461.60.26.10.737441.30.14.80.5174−0.30.1−1.30.2
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based46471.40.15.50.546481.00.13.90.4244−0.40.1−1.60.2
Other Desserts37781.20.14.60.537771.00.13.90.4339−0.20.0−0.60.1
Meats42491.00.14.00.442461.00.14.00.4140.00.00.00.0
Poultry652101.00.13.80.465291.00.13.80.41300.00.00.00.0
Fats and Oils700111.00.13.80.4700101.00.13.80.4860.00.00.00.0
Cured Meats/Poultry585120.90.13.60.4585110.90.13.50.420.00.00.00.0
Savory Snacks942130.80.13.20.4942130.80.13.10.42330.00.0−0.10.0
Candy600140.70.12.60.3600140.60.12.50.32730.00.0−0.10.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F288150.70.12.60.3288160.60.12.20.3100−0.10.0−0.40.1
Eggs333160.70.12.50.2333150.60.12.20.2211−0.10.0−0.30.0
White Potatoes580170.60.12.20.2580190.50.01.70.2121−0.10.0−0.50.1
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas1119180.50.02.00.11119170.50.01.90.1850.00.0−0.10.0
Plant-Based Protein Foods344190.50.11.80.3344180.50.11.80.310.00.00.00.0
Quick Breads and Bread Products297200.40.11.60.2297200.40.01.40.22820.00.0−0.20.0
Dairy Drinks and Substitutes79210.40.11.30.279210.40.11.30.200.00.00.00.0
Flavored Milk225220.30.11.30.2225220.30.11.30.200.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Asian174230.30.11.20.3174230.30.11.20.3110.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Soups237240.30.01.10.1237240.30.01.00.1100.00.0−0.10.0
1 To a 1% contribution of daily intake of SFA; 2 Nutrients from milk, cheese, and yogurt for non-dairy foods are added to the nutrients in the milk, cheese, and yogurt food categories, respectively. For non-dairy foods the nutrients displayed are only for the milk, cheese, and yogurt in the non-dairy food. Abbreviations: Cons = consumers, M/P/F = meat/poultry/fish; SE = standard error; Pct = percent contribution to energy intake or specific nutrient intake, as appropriate.
Table 8. Food/food group sources 1 of mean sodium (mg) intake among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Table 8. Food/food group sources 1 of mean sodium (mg) intake among US children aged 2–18 years (N = 5876): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2014.
Mean Sodium Intake (mg) of Children 2–5 Years of Age (n = 1511)
WWEIA Food GroupActual IntakeAdjusted Intake 2Delta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Cured Meats/Poultry4591182.720.38.10.84592182.420.28.00.82−0.30.30.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based4662155.112.36.80.54664140.311.86.20.5266−14.91.4−0.70.1
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas8183144.410.66.40.58183144.010.56.40.530−0.40.20.00.0
Poultry5264131.311.45.80.55266131.211.45.80.5710.00.00.00.0
Milk11205120.74.45.30.214155133.84.25.90.2112013.20.70.60.0
Mixed Dishes—Pizza2476118.413.45.20.62471183.19.43.70.4247−35.34.3−1.60.2
Mixed Dishes—Mexican2017116.413.35.10.6201988.710.23.90.5189−27.73.5−1.20.2
Cheese542899.511.64.40.510471187.513.18.30.582088.04.43.90.2
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches208997.210.14.30.4208792.99.74.10.467−4.30.9−0.20.0
Sweet Bakery Products7231090.63.84.00.2723889.73.84.00.2262−0.90.10.00.0
Savory Snacks6881185.811.63.80.56881085.311.63.80.5140−0.50.10.00.0
Quick Breads and Bread Products2931274.28.33.30.42931372.68.13.20.4274−1.60.3−0.10.0
Mixed Dishes—Soups2271372.910.83.20.52271272.710.83.20.57−0.20.10.00.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals6951467.73.53.00.26951467.73.53.00.2120.00.00.00.0
Crackers3531565.36.22.90.33531564.36.12.80.386−1.00.20.00.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F1891663.210.72.80.51891662.310.82.80.569−0.90.30.00.0
Eggs3321762.96.42.80.33321858.55.82.60.3234−4.40.9−0.200.0
Condiments and Sauces4871861.05.82.70.34871760.75.72.70.318−0.30.10.00.0
Vegetables, excluding Potatoes5601955.74.52.50.25601955.14.62.40.222−0.60.40.00.0
White Potatoes4012045.74.12.00.24012044.94.12.00.278−0.80.20.00.0
Cooked Grains2992144.54.92.00.22992144.54.92.00.200.00.00.00.0
Flavored Milk2532238.14.81.70.22532238.14.81.70.200.00.00.00.0
Plant-Based Protein Foods3462331.93.51.40.23462331.93.51.40.210.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Asian892430.07.01.30.3892430.07.01.30.310.00.00.00.0
Meats2202529.93.71.30.22202529.93.71.30.250.00.00.00.0
Seafood962626.77.31.20.3962626.67.31.20.326−0.10.00.00.0
Fats and Oils4602724.01.61.10.14602724.01.61.10.1310.00.00.00.0
Sweetened Beverages7872822.92.41.00.17872822.62.31.00.123−0.30.10.00.0
Mean Sodium Intake (mg) of Children 6–11 Years of Age (n = 2193)
WWEIA Food GroupActual IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Mixed Dishes—Pizza5481286.229.59.41.05482206.721.36.80.7547−79.48.9−2.60.3
Mixed Dishes—Mexican3622214.725.07.10.83627168.119.95.50.6347−46.65.8−1.50.2
Cured Meats/Poultry6873197.013.06.50.46873197.013.06.50.410.00.00.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches4364193.617.96.40.64365181.17.26.00.5170−12.41.9−0.40.1
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas12055193.56.76.40.312054192.746.66.40.385−0.80.20.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based6066185.513.06.10.46068163.010.65.40.3324−22.53.4−0.70.1
Poultry7117169.011.55.60.47116168.911.55.60.4124−0.10.00.00.0
Sweet Bakery Products10348129.86.84.30.210349128.56.74.20.2455−1.40.20.00.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F2819109.219.13.60.628111106.918.83.50.6123−2.30.6−0.10.0
Cheese72310108.39.73.60.316431277.212.29.10.41349168.911.75.60.4
Quick Breads and Bread Products47511105.07.83.50.347513102.77.73.40.3445−2.30.2−0.10.0
Savory Snacks104812103.55.33.40.2104812102.95.23.40.2232−0.60.10.00.0
Condiments and Sauces8671398.49.93.20.38671497.59.93.20.332−1.00.40.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Soups2531495.712.53.20.42531595.212.33.10.46−0.50.40.00.0
Milk12741589.23.22.90.1198710108.13.43.60.1164618.920.90.60.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals8611682.65.22.70.28611682.65.22.70.224−0.10.00.00.0
White Potatoes6101767.55.42.20.26101765.75.22.20.2105−1.80.5−0.10.0
Meats3881859.26.32.00.23881859.26.32.00.250.00.00.00.0
Eggs3241954.35.21.80.23241951.24.81.70.2217−3.10.7−0.10.0
Vegetables, excluding Potatoes7922050.44.91.70.27922149.74.81.60.240−0.70.20.00.0
Flavored Milk5552150.34.31.70.15552050.34.31.70.100.00.00.00.0
Cooked Grains3022246.25.01.50.23022246.15.01.50.21−0.10.10.00.0
Crackers3252342.24.01.40.13252441.54.01.40.196−0.70.10.00.0
Fats and Oils7402442.13.51.40.17402342.13.51.40.162−0.10.00.00.0
Sweetened Beverages14672542.02.01.40.114672541.01.91.40.145−1.00.50.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Asian1422638.46.61.30.21422638.46.61.30.250.00.00.00.0
Plant-Based Protein Foods4752735.73.31.20.14752735.73.31.20.110.00.00.00.0
Other Desserts6202830.25.41.00.26202922.04.40.70.24788.31.1−0.30.0
Mean Sodium Intake (mg) of Children 12–18 Years of Age (n = 2172)
WWEIA Food GroupActual IntakeAdjusted IntakeDelta Intake
Sub Group DescriptionConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsRankMeanSEPctSEConsMeanSEPctSE
Mixed Dishes—Pizza4861296.531.18.70.94863216.322.86.40.7486−80.28.7−2.40.3
Mixed Dishes—Mexican3292224.426.36.60.83298178.320.75.30.6313−46.16.3−1.40.2
Cured Meats/Poultry5853222.719.36.60.55852222.119.36.50.52−0.60.50.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Sandwiches3744210.620.26.20.63746191.918.25.70.5174−18.73.40.60.1
Breads, Rolls, Tortillas11195209.88.86.20.211194209.08.76.20.285−0.80.20.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Grain-based4646200.514.85.90.44647179.714.15.30.4244−20.72.8−0.60.1
Poultry6527193.218.45.70.56525193.218.45.70.5130−0.10.00.00.0
Condiments and Sauces8898146.713.54.30.48899145.513.44.30.441−1.10.30.00.0
Mixed Dishes—M/P/F2889133.419.73.90.628810128.819.63.80.6100−4.61.1−0.20.0
Cheese68710117.97.83.50.315651300.112.18.80.41276182.312.05.40.3
Savory Snacks94211113.89.13.40.394211112.79.03.30.3233−1.10.20.00.0
Mixed Dishes—Soups23712111.111.03.30.323712110.211.03.30.310−0.90.50.00.0
Sweet Bakery Products83313108.18.43.20.283315106.78.33.140.2344−1.40.20.00.0
Meats42414107.79.83.20.342414107.79.83.20.3140.00.00.00.0
White Potatoes58015103.19.93.00.35801695.69.52.80.3121−7.51.6−0.20.1
Mixed Dishes—Asian1741694.420.12.80.61741794.420.12.80.6110.00.00.00.0
Milk9731790.04.72.70.1177913109.24.73.20.2145319.21.00.60.0
Quick Breads and Bread Products2971881.87.42.40.22971880.27.32.40.2282−1.60.2−0.10.0
Ready-to-Eat Cereals5821975.25.22.20.25821975.25.22.20.2180.00.00.00.0
Eggs3332066.25.72.00.23332162.65.31.90.2211−3.60.6−0.10.0
Fats and Oils7002163.27.41.90.27002063.07.41.90.286−0.20.00.00.0
Sweetened Beverages14042259.44.71.80.114042258.54.81.70.140−0.90.20.00.0
Vegetables, excluding Potatoes8032357.67.11.70.28032356.97.11.70.228−0.70.20.00.0
Cooked Grains3252451.85.21.50.23252451.85.21.50.200.00.00.00.0
Crackers2292543.16.41.30.22292542.66.31.30.269−0.50.10.00.0
Plant-Based Protein Foods3442635.75.01.10.13442635.75.01.10.110.00.00.00.0
1 To a 1% contribution of daily intake of sodium; 2 Nutrients from milk, cheese, and yogurt for non-dairy foods are added to the nutrients in the milk, cheese, and yogurt food categories, respectively. For non-dairy foods the nutrients displayed are only for the milk, cheese, and yogurt in the non-dairy food. Abbreviations: Cons = consumers, M/P/F = meat/poultry/fish; SE = standard error; Pct = percent contribution to energy intake or specific nutrient intake, as appropriate.

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O’Neil, C.E.; Nicklas, T.A.; Fulgoni, V.L., III. Food Sources of Energy and Nutrients of Public Health Concern and Nutrients to Limit with a Focus on Milk and other Dairy Foods in Children 2 to 18 Years of Age: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011–2014. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1050. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10081050

AMA Style

O’Neil CE, Nicklas TA, Fulgoni VL III. Food Sources of Energy and Nutrients of Public Health Concern and Nutrients to Limit with a Focus on Milk and other Dairy Foods in Children 2 to 18 Years of Age: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011–2014. Nutrients. 2018; 10(8):1050. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10081050

Chicago/Turabian Style

O’Neil, Carol E., Theresa A. Nicklas, and Victor L. Fulgoni, III. 2018. "Food Sources of Energy and Nutrients of Public Health Concern and Nutrients to Limit with a Focus on Milk and other Dairy Foods in Children 2 to 18 Years of Age: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011–2014" Nutrients 10, no. 8: 1050. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10081050

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