Dietary Cholesterol, Serum Lipids, and Heart Disease: Are Eggs Working for or Against You?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Cholesterol, Eggs, and Heart Disease
2.1. Relationship between Dietary Cholesterol and/or Egg Intake on Risk for CVD in Observational Studies
2.2. Serum Cholesterol Responses and Adaptations to Cholesterol Intake
3. Dietary Cholesterol from Egg Intake and Lipoprotein Metabolism
3.1. Effects of Dietary Cholesterol from Egg Intake on LDL-C, HDL-C, and the LDL-C/HDL-C Ratio
3.2. Effects of Dietary Cholesterol from Egg Intake on Lipoprotein Particle Characteristics
3.3. Effects of Dietary Cholesterol and/or Eggs on HDL Metabolism and Functionality
3.4. The Phospholipid Component of Eggs May Influence the Response to Dietary Cholesterol
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Study/Population | Design | # Days | LDL-C | HDL-C | LDL-C/HDL-C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Children | |||||
Ballesteros et al. 2004 [43]; Healthy boys and girls | Crossover (n = 54): 2 eggs per day (518 mg cholesterol) vs. egg substitute | 30 | Hyper-: +25% Hypo-: ↔ | Hyper-: +10% Hypo-: ↔ | ↔ |
Adults | |||||
Herron et al. 2002 [44]; Healthy women | Crossover (n = 51): 3 eggs per day (640 mg cholesterol) vs. egg substitute | 30 | Hyper-: +20% Hypo-: ↔ | Hyper-: +12% Hypo-: ↔ | ↔ |
Herron et al. 2003 [45]; Healthy men | Crossover (n = 40): 3 eggs per day (640 mg cholesterol) vs. egg substitute | 30 | Hyper-: +30% Hypo-: ↔ | Hyper-: +8% Hypo-: ↔ | Hyper-: + 22% Hypo-: ↔ |
Greene et al. 2005 [46]; Healthy older adults | Crossover (n = 42): 3 eggs per day (640 mg cholesterol) vs. egg substitute | 30 | Women: +10% Men: +2% | Women: +3% Men: +10% | ↔ |
Knopp et al. 2003 [41]; Insulin-sensitive | Crossover (n = 65): 4 eggs per day (850 mg cholesterol) vs. egg substitute | 28 | +7% | +7% | ND * |
Hyperlipidemic | |||||
Knopp et al. 1997 [49]; Hypercholesterolemic (HC) and combined hyperlipidemic (CHL) men/women | Parallel: 2 eggs per day (425 mg cholesterol) (HC: n = 44; CHL: n = 31) vs. egg substitute (HC: n = 35; CHL: n = 21) | 84 | HC: ↔ CHL: +8% from baseline | HC: +8% from baseline CHL: +7% from baseline | ND |
Vishwanathan et al. 2009 [50]; Statin-taking older adults | Crossover (n = 52): 2 or 4 eggs per day (~400–800 mg cholesterol) vs. egg exclusion | 35 | 2 eggs: ↔ 4 eggs: ↔ | 2 eggs: +5% 4 eggs: +5% | ND |
Study/Population | Design | # Days | LDL-C | HDL-C | LDL-C/HDL-C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Insulin-resistant | |||||
Knopp et al. 2003 [41]; Insulin-resistant (IR) and obese insulin-resistant (OIR) | Crossover (IR: n = 75; OIR: n = 57): 4 eggs per day (850 mg cholesterol) vs. egg substitute | 28 | IR: +6% OIR: ↔ | IR: +6% OIR: +6% | ND * |
Diabetic | |||||
Ballesteros et al. 2015 [51]; Diabetic patients | Crossover (n = 29): 1 egg per day (250 mg cholesterol) vs. oatmeal breakfast | 35 | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ |
Fuller et al. 2015 [52]; Diabetic patients | Parallel: High egg (12 eggs/week; ~300–350 mg cholesterol/day) (n = 72) vs. low egg (<2 eggs/week) (n = 68) | 42 | ↔ | ↔ | ND |
Study/Population | Design | # Days | LDL-C | HDL-C | LDL-C/HDL-C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Harman et al. 2008 [53]; Men/women | Parallel: 2 eggs per day (~400 mg cholesterol) (n = 24) vs. egg exclusion (n = 21) | 84 | ↔ | ↔ | ND * |
Mutungi et al. 2008 [54]; Overweight/obese men | Parallel: 3 eggs per day (640 mg cholesterol) (n = 15) vs. egg substitute (n = 13) | 84 | ↔ | +25% from baseline | ↔ |
Pearce et al. 2011 [56]; Diabetic patients | Parallel: 2 eggs per day (590 mg cholesterol/day) (n = 31) vs. egg exclusion (213 mg cholesterol/day) (n = 34) | 84 | ↔ | Eggs +2% from baseline, egg exclusion −6% from baseline | ↔ |
Blesso et al. 2013 [55]; Metabolic syndrome men/women | Parallel: 3 eggs per day (640 mg cholesterol) (n = 20) vs. egg substitute (n = 17) | 84 | ↔ | +17% from baseline | ↓ |
Study/Population | Design | # Days | LDL Particles | Oxidized LDL | HDL Particles |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Weight maintenance | |||||
Ballesteros et al. 2004 [43]; Healthy children | Crossover (n = 54): 2 eggs per day (518 mg cholesterol) vs. egg substitute | 30 | ↑Large LDL (+31% LDL-1 in hyper-) ↓Small LDL (−38% LDL-3 in hyper-) ↑LDL size | ND * | ND |
Herron et al. 2004 [61]; Healthy men/women | Crossover (n = 52): 3 eggs per day (640 mg cholesterol) vs. egg substitute | 30 | ↑Large LDL (+13% LDL-1, +30% LDL-2 in women hyper-) | ↔ | ND |
Greene et al. 2006 [62]; Healthy elderly men/women | Crossover (n = 42): 3 eggs per day (640 mg cholesterol) vs. egg substitute | 30 | ↑Large LDL (+30% from baseline in hyper-) | ND | ↑Large HDL (+23% from baseline in hyper-) ↑HDL size |
Ballesteros et al. 2015 [51]; Diabetic patients | Crossover (n = 29): 1 egg per day (250 mg cholesterol) vs. oatmeal breakfast | 35 | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ |
Weight loss | |||||
Mutungi et al. 2010 [63]; Overweight/obese men | Parallel: 3 eggs per day (640 mg cholesterol) (n = 15) vs. egg substitute (n = 13) | 84 | ↑Large LDL (+42% from baseline) | ND | ↑Large HDL (+52% from baseline) ↑HDL size |
Blesso et al. 2013 [55]; Metabolic syndrome men/women | Parallel: 3 eggs per day (640 mg cholesterol) (n = 20) vs. egg substitute (n = 17) | 84 | ↑Large LDL (+22% from baseline) | ↔ | ↑Large HDL (+30% from baseline) ↑HDL size |
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Blesso, C.N.; Fernandez, M.L. Dietary Cholesterol, Serum Lipids, and Heart Disease: Are Eggs Working for or Against You? Nutrients 2018, 10, 426. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10040426
Blesso CN, Fernandez ML. Dietary Cholesterol, Serum Lipids, and Heart Disease: Are Eggs Working for or Against You? Nutrients. 2018; 10(4):426. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10040426
Chicago/Turabian StyleBlesso, Christopher N., and Maria Luz Fernandez. 2018. "Dietary Cholesterol, Serum Lipids, and Heart Disease: Are Eggs Working for or Against You?" Nutrients 10, no. 4: 426. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10040426