Starchy Carbohydrates in a Healthy Diet: The Role of the Humble Potato
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Nutrient Composition
2.1. Macronutrients
2.1.1. Carbohydrate
2.1.2. Fibre
2.1.2.1. Resistant Starch
2.1.3. Protein and Fat
2.2. Micronutrients
2.3. Phytonutrients
2.4. Effects of Potato Variety on Nutrient Composition
2.5. Effects of Storage on Nutrient Composition
3. Relationship between Potato Consumption and Non-Communicable Diseases
3.1. Obesity
3.2. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM)
3.3 Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) and CVD Risk Factors
4. Conclusions
- The nutritional content of a medium-sized baked potato weighing 200 g can provide a significant contribution to vitamin and micronutrient needs, containing almost half of the UK daily RNI for a man for vitamin C and vitamin B6, 30% for potassium, 28% for folate, 24% for iron, and 18% for magnesium.
- The total fibre content of 4.4 g is 15% of the 30 g per day recommended for an adult. However, these figures are markedly altered by the cooking method, for example, the vitamin C content would be 50% higher in a microwaved potato, and the iron content would be reduced by over 70%.
- A major limitation when assessing the nutrient quality of the potato is that the RS content of potatoes is not included in the gold standard AOAC method for total fibre. Therefore, the total fibre content of potatoes listed in food databases underestimates actual total fibre content, and consequently the nutritional value.
- The interaction between meal components, such as starch and lipid, is a somewhat under-explored but particularly exciting and important area, as there is the potential to change the RS starch content of a meal by making simple changes to cooking methods. Considering other meal components and portion size is also important with respect to the overall GL of a meal.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Nutrient | Raw (Flesh and Skin) | Boiled (Flesh Only) Cooked Without Skin | Boiled (Flesh Only) Cooked in Skin | Baked (Flesh and Skin) | Microwaved (Flesh and Skin) | Oven-Baked Chips 1 | Fried Chips 2 | Daily RNI; (M/F) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Water (g) | 79.3 | 77.5 | 77.0 | 74.9 | 72.0 | 64.4 | 38.6 | - |
Energy (kcal) | 77 | 86 | 87 | 93 | 105 | 158 | 312 | - |
Protein (g) | 2.1 | 1.7 | 1.9 | 2.5 | 2.4 | 2.8 | 3.3 | - |
Fat (g) | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 5.5 | 14.7 | - |
Carbohydrate (g) | 17.5 | 20.0 | 20.1 | 21.2 | 24.2 | 25.6 | 41.4 | - |
Fibre * (g) | 2.1 | 1.8 | 1.8 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 2.0 | 3.8 | - |
Minerals | ||||||||
Calcium (mg) | 12 | 8 | 5 | 15 | 11 | 12 | 18 | 700 |
Iron (mg) | 0.81 | 0.31 | 0.31 | 1.08 | 1.24 | 0.57 | 0.81 | 8.7/14.8 |
Magnesium (mg) | 23 | 20 | 22 | 28 | 27 | 24 | 35 | 300/270 |
Phosphorus (mg) | 57 | 40 | 44 | 70 | 105 | 87 | 125 | 550 |
Potassium (mg) | 425 | 328 | 379 | 535 | 447 | 478 | 579 | 3500 |
Sodium (mg) | 6 | 5 | 4 | 10 | 8 | 324 ** | 210 ** | 1600 |
Zinc (mg) | 0.30 | 0.27 | 0.30 | 0.36 | 0.36 | 0.35 | 0.50 | 9.5/7.0 |
Vitamins | ||||||||
Vitamin C (mg) | 19.7 | 7.4 | 13.0 | 9.6 | 15.1 | 8.7 | 4.7 | 40 |
Thiamin (mg) | 0.081 | 0.098 | 0.106 | 0.064 | 0.120 | 0.130 | 0.170 | 1.0/0.8 |
Riboflavin (mg) | 0.032 | 0.019 | 0.020 | 0.048 | 0.032 | 0.032 | 0.039 | 1.3/1.1 |
Niacin (mg) | 1.061 | 1.312 | 1.439 | 1.410 | 1.714 | 2.077 | 3.004 | 17/13 |
Vitamin B6 (mg) | 0.298 | 0.269 | 0.299 | 0.311 | 0.344 | 0.261 | 0.372 | 1.4/1.2 |
Folate (µg) | 15 | 9 | 10 | 28 | 12 | 23 | 30 | 200 |
Vitamin B12 (µg) | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.5 |
Vitamin A (µg) | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 700/600 |
Vitamin E (mg) | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.39 | 1.67 | - |
Vitamin D (µg) | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 10 |
Vitamin K (µg) | 2.0 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 7.4 | 11.2 | - |
Reference | Study Type; Follow-Up/Duration | n (%F); BMI; Age (years); Criteria | Exposure; Assessment Method | Results | Potato Categories | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
French et al., 1994 [55] | Cross-sectional and prospective cohort (two years) | 3552 (53.9%) Normal weight to obese 37.3 ± 10.7 years (F) 39.1 ± 9.8 years (M) | Participating in a workplace weight loss intervention FFQ (18 items) | A trend for an association (p = 0.06) between consumption of French fries/fried potatoes and higher bodyweight in women at baseline Increased consumption of French fries associated with weight gain in women | French fries and fried potatoes in a single category; no other potatoes measured | Data from the Healthy Worker Project [59] Participants were fully clothed, including shoes, for weight measurement. Time of day was not standardised. FFQ contained only 15 highest contributors to energy and fat intake; fruit and vegetable intake was not assessed. |
Halkjaer et al., 2004 [58] | Cohort (six years) | 2300 (49.2%) Normal weight to obese 30–60 years Of Danish origin | Habitual diet FFQ (26 items) | A weak inverse association between potato consumption and waist circumference; insignificant after adjustment for changes in obesity | Potatoes (unspecified) | Data from the MONICA1 study Intake remained largely unchanged over the time period measured |
Linde et al., 2006 [56] | Cross-sectional and prospective cohort (2 years) | 1801 (71.8%) Overweight and obese (BMI > 27) >18 years | Participating in weight loss intervention Block Screening Questionnaires for Fat (15 Items) and Fruit/Vegetable/Fibre (nine items) Intake | Consumption of French fries associated with higher BMI in women, but not men at baseline Increased consumption of French fries associated with increased BMI over two years for men and women No association between potatoes and BMI at baseline or over the course of the intervention | Potatoes; French fries | |
Halkjaer et al., 2009 [57] | Cohort (five years) | 42,696 (52.9%) BMI 20–33.5 50–64 years | Habitual diet FFQ (192 items, 21 groups) | Energy intake from potatoes was associated with five year increase in waist circumference in women | Potatoes (not including French fries) | Data from the Danish Diet, Cancer and Health Study [60] French fries were incorporated into a Snack Foods group, potatoes were in a group of their own. All analysis by group, not individual food item. |
Mozaffarian et al., 2011 [54] | Three cohorts (four year intervals) | 120,877 (81.3%) Non-obese at baseline 18–64 years Energy intake 900–3500 kcal/day | Habitual diet FFQ (61/131 items) | Four year weight change was positively associated with potato intake (all categories) | Total potato intake; Boiled, baked or mashed; French fries; Potato chips | Data from the Nurses’ Health Study I and II [61] and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study [62] |
Reference | Participants | Study Type | Test Meals | Measures | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Holt et al., 1996 [67] | n = 11–13 per group BMI 22.7 ± 0.4 22.1 ± 2.9 years | Crossover | 1000 kJ portions of 38 test foods split into food groups, carbohydrate-rich group included. Along with 220 mL water. White bread as reference food. | Seven-point scale for satiety ratings | Boiled potatoes had the highest satiety score of all foods. An inverse association between satiety score and subsequent ad libitum energy intake was observed. |
Erdmann et al., 2007 [68] | 11 M BMI 23.5 ± 0.5 24.4 ± 0.3 years | Crossover | 150 g lean pork steak, served with ad libitum amount of boiled white pasta, boiled white rice or boiled white potatoes, all in tomato sauce. Participants asked to consume foods until comfortably satiated. Ad libitum sandwich meal provided 4 h later. | VAS scores for hunger and satiety every 15 min | Comparable amounts of potato, pasta and rice consumed at first meal (353–372 g), but energy intake significantly lower for potato meal (2177 kJ) than rice (2829 kJ) and pasta (3174 kJ). Greater satiety and less hunger following pasta and rice meals during hour 4. No difference in energy consumption at second ad libitum meal (+4 h) No differences in satiety and hunger following second meal. |
Leeman et al., 2008 [69] Study 1 | 9 M, 4 F BMI 21.8 ± 3.1 19–27 years | Crossover | Isoenergetic 1000 kJ portions of boiled potatoes, French fries or instant mashed potatoes (reconstituted with 200 or 330 g water), providing 32.5–50.3 g available CHO, all served with 250 water or milk/water mix and 150 mL tea/coffee. | Nine-point scale (painfully hungry–full to nausea) | French fries produced a lower satiety AUC than boiled potatoes over 4 h and lower satiety AUC than the small portion of mashed potato over 0–70 min. |
Leeman et al., 2008 [69] Study 2 | 6 M, 8 F BMI 21.9 ± 2.0 20–28 years | Crossover | 50 g available CHO portions of French fries and boiled potatoes, with or without 15.4 g sunflower oil (963–534 kJ), white wheat bread reference, all served with 150 water and 150 mL tea/coffee. | Nine-point scale (painfully hungry–full to nausea) | No significant differences between meals. |
Geliebter et al., 2013 [70] | 6 M, 6 F BMI 22.4 ± 2.0 22–30 years | Crossover | 240 kcal portions (50 g CHO) of peeled baked potato, instant mashed potato, steamed brown rice and boiled pasta. White bread as control (273 kcal, 50 g CHO). Variable amount of water (180–363 g) served on the side to bring total water content of each meal to 400 g. | Scales for hunger, fullness, desire to eat and prospective consumption | Both potato meals reduced appetite compared to pasta and rice. No differences between meals on subsequent (2 h) energy intake. |
Akilen et al., 2016 [71] | Study 1: 12 M, 8 F Study 2: 6 M, 6 F 11–12 years (children) normal weight | Crossover | 100 g meatballs, served with ad libitum boiled mashed potatoes (from frozen, served with milk and butter), pasta (with milk, butter and cheese powder), boiled white rice (with butter and rice seasoning), oven fries or French fries. All served 4 h after a standardised breakfast. | VAS for satiety ratings | A smaller amount of oven fries and French fries was consumed than pasta. Energy intake was lower for boiled mashed potato than all other meals. No difference between meals for mean appetite scores until adjusted for energy intake. Adjusted post-meal appetite scores were lower for boiled mashed potatoes than other test meals. |
Diaz-Toledo et al., 2016 [72] | 16 M, 17 F BMI 22.7 ± 0.3 34.1 ± 2.4 years | Crossover | 858 kJ portions of French fries (deep-fried from frozen), baked potato (pre-prepared, microwaved from frozen), mashed potato (pre-prepared, microwaved from chilled), or potato wedges (microwaved and served chilled). Pasta (boiled) as control. All served with meatballs in tomato sauce, salad and Caesar dressing (total energy from meal, 1883 kJ). All served 3 h after a standardized, personalised breakfast. Ad libitum sandwich and yoghurt meal provided 4 h after test meal. | VAS for satiety ratings (hunger, fullness, desire to eat and prospective consumption) | Higher satiety ratings (4 h AUC) for French fries, compared to pasta. Each potato meal compared to pasta meal only; no comparisons performed between potato-based meals. No difference in energy consumption at second ad libitum meal (+4 h). |
Potato Variety and Cooking Method | Glycaemic Index | Glycaemic Load (150 g Portion) | Available CHO (g per 150 g Portion) |
---|---|---|---|
Charlotte (waxy), boiled 15 min | 66 | 15 | 23 |
Nicola (waxy), boiled 15 min | 58–59 | 9 | 16 |
Carisma (waxy), boiled 8–9 min | 53 | 8 | 16 |
Desiree, boiled 35 min | 101 | 17 | 17 |
Pontiac, boiled 35 min | 88 | 16 | 18 |
Russet Burbank, unpeeled, microwaved for 18 min | 77 ± 9 | 19 | 25 |
White with skin, baked | 69 | 19 | 27 |
Instant mashed potato | 79–97 | 16–19 | 20 |
Desiree, mashed | 102 | 26 | 26 |
Pontiac, mashed | 91 | 18 | 20 |
French fries, baked 15 min | 64 | 21 | 32 |
Irish potato, peeled, fried in oil | 70 | 21 | 30 |
Reference | Study Type; Follow-Up/Duration | n (%F); BMI (kg/m2); Age (years); Criteria | Exposure; Assessment Method | Results | Potato Categories | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Salmerón et al., 1997 [88] | Cohort (six years) | 42,759 (0%); normal weight to obese; 40–75 years Energy intake 400-4200 kcal/day | Habitual diet FFQ (131 items) | Consumption of French fries, but not total potato intake, was associated with increased risk of T2DM | Cooked potato; French fries | Data from the Health Professionals Follow-up Study [62] |
Salmeron et al., 1997 [78] | Cohort (six years) | 65,173 (100%); normal weight to obese; 40–65 years Energy intake 600–3502 kcal/day | Habitual diet FFQ (134 items) | Intake of both total potatoes and French fries was associated with increased risk of T2DM | Cooked potato; French fries | Data from the Nurses’ Health Study [61] |
Hodge et al., 2004 [64] | Cohort (four years) | 31,641 (59%); normal weight to obese; 27–75 years | Habitual diet FFQ (121 items) | Total potato intake was not associated with risk of T2DM Total carbohydrate intake was inversely associated with T2DM incidence High dietary GI was associated with increased risk of T2DM | Total potato intake | Data from The Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study [89] |
Liu et al., 2004 [65] | Cohort (8 to 9 years) | 38,018 (100%); normal weight to obese; ≥45 years | Habitual diet FFQ (131 items) | Total potato intake was not associated with risk of T2DM | Total potato intake | Data from the Women’s Health Study [90] |
Halton et al., 2006 [77] | Cohort (20 years) | 84,555 (100%); normal weight to obese; 30–55 years at baseline; Energy intake 500–3500 kcal/day | Habitual diet FFQ (61 items at baseline, rising to 131 items), repeated assessment | Baked or mashed potato intake was associated with risk of T2DM in obese women only Intake of French fries was associated with increased risk of T2DM for all women | French fries; Baked or mashed | Data from the Nurses’ Health Study [61] Potato and French fries consumption patterns did not change over time |
Villegas et al., 2007 [63] | Cohort (4.6 years) | 64,227 (100%); normal weight to obese; 40–70 years | Habitual diet FFQ (77 food items/groups) | Potato consumption associated with lower risk of T2DM | Total potato intake | Data from the Shanghai Women’s Health Study [91] Study population did not consume much potato (median intake 8.1 g/day); their main CHO was rice |
Von Ruesten et al., 2013 [86] | Cohort (eight years) | 23,531 (61%); normal weight to obese; 35–65 years Energy intake 800–6000 kcal/day | Habitual diet FFQ (148 food items) | No associations between potato or fried potato consumption and T2DM risk | Potatoes (potatoes, mashed, potato dumpling, potato salad); Fried potatoes (French fries, croquettes, fried potatoes, potato pancake) | Data from the EPIC Potsdam Study [92] |
Muraki et al., 2016 [66] | Three cohorts (four years) | 199,181 (80%) Normal weight to obese; 40–75 years; | Habitual diet FFQ (61/131 items) | Consumption of potatoes, especially French fries was associated with increased risk of T2DM | Total potato intake; Boiled, baked or mashed; French fries | Data from the Nurses’ Health Study I and II [61] and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study [62] |
Farhadnejad et al., 2018 [87] | Cohort (six years) | 1981 (53.8%) normal weight to obese 38.9 ± 13.4 years | Total potato and boiled potato consumption both associated with lower risk of T2DM | Total potato intake; Boiled potatoes;Fried potatoes | Data from the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study [93] Median intake 22.4 g/day |
Reference | Study Type; Follow-Up/Duration | n (%F); BMI; Age (years); Criteria | Exposure; Assessment Method | Results | Cooking Methods | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Joshipura et al., 1999 [95] | Two cohorts (NHS: eight years; HPFS: 14 years) | 114,276 (66%); mean BMI 24.3–25.45 kg/m2; M: 40–75 years F: 34–59 years; CVD-, cancer- and T2DM-free at baseline | Habitual diet FFQ (61/131 items) | No association between potato consumption and ischemic stroke risk | Not Specified | Data from the Nurses’ Health Study I and II [61] and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study [62] |
Larsson et al., 2016 [94] | Two cohorts (13 years) | 69,313 (47.3%); M: 45–79 years F: 49–83 years; CVD-, cancer- and T2DM-free at baseline | Habitual diet FFQ (96 items) | Neither total potato consumption nor any individual cooking method was associated with risk of major CVD events (myocardial infarction, heart failure, stroke) or mortality from CVD | Total potatoes; Boiled potatoes; Fried potatoes; French fries | Data from the Cohort of Swedish Men and the Swedish Mammography Cohort Median total potato consumption 4.5–5.5 times/week, mainly from boiled potatoes (3.5 times/week) |
Borgi et al., 2016 [97] | Three cohorts (max 24–34 years) Health questionnaires every two years | 187,453 (80.4%) Non-hypertensive at baseline BMI 20.9–31.8 kg/m2 F: 25–55 years M: 40–75 years | Habitual diet FFQ (61/131 items) | ≥1 serving/day of potato (all types) associated with increased risk of hypertension, compared to <1 serving/month ≥4 servings/week of boiled, baked or mashed potatoes associated with increased risk of hypertension in women but not men, compared to <1 serving/month ≥4 servings/week French fries associated with increased risk of hypertension, compared to <1 serving/month | Total potato intake; Boiled, baked or mashed; French fries; Potato chips | Data from the Nurses’ Health Study I and II [61] and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study [62] |
Hu et al., 2017 [98] | 2 cohorts 4 and 6–7 years follow-ups) | PREDIMED: 6940 55–80 years CVD free, but at high risk (T2DM or ≥3 of: smoking, hypertension, high LDL, low HDL, overweight, family history of CVD) SUN project: 13,837 M: 42.7 ± 13.3 years F: 35.1 ± 10.7 years | PREDIMED: Mediterranean diet FFQ (137 items) SUN: Habitual diet FFQ (136 items) | Total potato intake not associated with change in BP or incidence of hypertension over 4 years | PREDIMED: Potato chips (crisps), homemade fries, cooked or boiled potatoes SUN: Fried potatoes, cooked or roasted potatoes | Data from the PREDIMED [106] and SUN [107] cohorts |
Huang et al., 2018 [96] | Cohort Mean 11.3 years | 11,763 (54.6%) 20–93 years No hypertension, infarction or diabetes at baseline | Habitual diet, three day dietary recall | Sweet potato associated with HT in urban residents Potatoes (p = 0.1225), stir-fried potatoes (p = 0.2168) and non-stir-fried potatoes (p = 0.0456) all associated with HT When non-potato consumers were excluded, higher consumption of total potatoes and stir-fried potatoes associated with lower risk of HT | Total potatoes; Sweet potatoes; Stir-fried potatoes; Non stir-fried potatoes | Data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey [108] Urban residents more likely to consume sweet potato in snack form (fried chips, sugar-cured fries) Rice was the main starchy CHO in the diet, potato consumption was much lower than Western countries; potatoes were more often consumed as a side dish |
Reference | Study Type; Follow-up/Duration | n (F); BMI; age (years); Criteria | Exposure; Assessment Method | Results | Cooking Methods | Potato Type | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vinson et al., 2012 [99] | 1. RCT: Single meal 2. Supplementation: Crossover (four weeks) | 8 (1); 5 normal weight, 2 overweight, 1 obese; 23 ± 9 years; Healthy 18 (11); 5 normal weight, 6 overweight, 7 obese; 54 ± 10 years; 14/18 hypertensive; 13/18 taking BP lowering medication | 6–8 small potatoes (~138 g), microwaved; Biscuit containing equivalent amount of potato starch served as control; Plasma samples (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 h) 24 h urine collection (urine polyphenols), pre- and post-study 6–8 small potatoes, microwaved, twice a day (lunch and dinner); No potatoes consumed on alternate arm; (BP, body weight, glucose, HDL, TAG, TC) pre/post trial | Non-significantly lower plasma antioxidant capacity following control meal, compared to potatoes (p = 0.11) Urine polyphenols increased by 92% following potato consumption and decreased by 3.5% following control biscuit (p = 0.09 for trend) 4 mmHg reduction in DBP following potato supplementation (p < 0.01); No effect on plasma glucose, HbA1c or lipids No effect on SBP or body weight | Microwaved, consumed with skins | Purple majesty (pigmented potato) | Participants followed a low polyphenol diet for three days prior to the acute study |
Tsang et al., 2018 [101] | RCT (14 days, with seven days washout between treatments) | 14 (8F); BMI: 19.4–31.2 kg/m2 (11 normal weight, 2 overweight, 1 obese) 20–55 years; Healthy; Normotensive | 200 g/day of PM potato versus white potato control; PWV, BP, bodyweight Plasma samples (TAG, HDL, LDL, TC, CRP, insulin, glucose) | Consumption of PM potatoes, but not white potatoes, significantly reduced PWV; No changes in any other measure for either PM or white potato | Boiled with skin | Purple Majesty (PM) | PM potatoes contain significantly higher amounts of anthocyanins than white potatoes (control); Participants were forbidden certain high-polyphenol foods and drinks and advised to limit fruit, vegetable and potato intake during the study |
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Robertson, T.M.; Alzaabi, A.Z.; Robertson, M.D.; Fielding, B.A. Starchy Carbohydrates in a Healthy Diet: The Role of the Humble Potato. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1764. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10111764
Robertson TM, Alzaabi AZ, Robertson MD, Fielding BA. Starchy Carbohydrates in a Healthy Diet: The Role of the Humble Potato. Nutrients. 2018; 10(11):1764. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10111764
Chicago/Turabian StyleRobertson, Tracey M., Abdulrahman Z. Alzaabi, M. Denise Robertson, and Barbara A. Fielding. 2018. "Starchy Carbohydrates in a Healthy Diet: The Role of the Humble Potato" Nutrients 10, no. 11: 1764. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10111764
APA StyleRobertson, T. M., Alzaabi, A. Z., Robertson, M. D., & Fielding, B. A. (2018). Starchy Carbohydrates in a Healthy Diet: The Role of the Humble Potato. Nutrients, 10(11), 1764. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10111764